•METHODS 

OF 

TEACHING  GYMNASTICS 


BY 


WILLIAM  GILBERT  ANDERSON,  M.D., 

Associate  Director  of  I  lie   Yale  University  Gymnasium,  President  of  the 

Anderson  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  Dean  of  the  Chautauqua 

School  of  Physical  Education,  etc. 


OF  TH« 

UNIVERSITY 


MEADVILLE,  PENN'A 

FLOOD  AND  VINCENT 

Che   Chautauqua-GCrnturp  press 

M  DCCC  xcv; 


Copyright,  1896 
By  FLOOD  &  VINCENT 


The  Chautauqua- Century  Press,  Meadville,  Pa.,  U.  8.  A. 
Electrotyped,  Printed,  and  Bound  by  Flood  &  Vineent. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DEDICATED  TO  MY  FATHER, 

BDwarfc  BnDerson, 

WHO,  TWENTY-FIVE  YEARS  AGO, 

STARTED  ME  IN  THIS  WORK, 

AND  WHO    HAS   ALWAYS 

BEEN  MY  COUNCILOR 

AND  ENTHUSIASTIC 

SUPPORTER. 


.    v/xf  THB  ^ 

rNTTTT-TTRCTTY    ] 


CONTENTS. 


<   HAI'TEK.  1'AGE. 

Introduction 7 

I.     Opinions  of  Educator*  on  Education  .   .      16 
II.     Opinions  of  Educators  on  Physical  Edu- 
cation          29 

III.  The  Ethical  Element  in  Physical  Train- 

i,i(f     40 

IV.  The  Gymnastic  Day's  Order 57 

V.     Effect  of  Certain  Exercises  upon  the  Pulse- 
rate    68 

VI.  Stimulus,  or  How  to  Arouse  Interest  .    .  76  — • 

VII.  Attention 84 

V 1 1 1.  Discipline,  or  School  Government    ...  95 

IX.  Analysis. — Synthesis. —Reflex  Acts  ....  Ill 

X.  Why  do  we   Teach?— Who  Shall  Teach?  115*- 

XI.  Out  fine  Lessons  on  Parts  of  the  Rody  .  122 

XII.  I  low  to  Teach   Walking 151 

XIII.  The  Alphabet 158 

XIV.  The  Voice.— Command*  .    . 164 

XV.  Hints  on  Teaching  a   Class  of  Boys  .    .  171 

XVI.     Military  Gymnastics 183 

XVII.     Use  of  Light  Apparatus 216 

XVIII.     Mannerisms     242- 

XIX.     Division    of    Work  for    the    Month    and 

Day    .  245 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 

Fig.   1.    Normal  Pulse,  Standing 73 

Fig.   2.    Pulse-rate  after  Running  in  Place 73 

Fig.  3.  Pulse-rate  after  Slow  Leg  Work  and  Breathing  Exercises   73 

Fig.  4.    Pulse-rate,  in  Place  Rest 73 

Fig.   5.    Turn  Head,  Wand  Front,  Stepping 124 

Fig.  6.    Letter  Y 124 

Fig.  7.    The  Chest  Machine 140 

Fig.   8.    Attention 148 

Fig.  9.    Knee  Bending 148 

Fig.  10.    Stepping  Motion,  Neck  Firm 156 

Fig.  11.    The  Charging  Motion 156 

Fig.  12.    Foot  Placing,  Two  Foot  Lengths 157 

Fig.  13.    The  Reverse  Charge 157 

Fig.  14.    Foot  Placing,  One  Foot  Length 188 

Fig.  15.  Right  Arm  Out,  Left  Arm  Front,  Face  to  Left,  Reverse 

Charge,  Left  Leg  Front 188 

Fig.  16.    In  Place  Rest 189 

Fig.  17.    Measuring  Facing  Distance 189 

Fig.  18.    Form  Fours  from  Twos 208 

Fig.  19.    Form  Twos  from  a  File 209 

Fig.  20.    Form  Twos  from  Fours :....  210 

Fig.  21.    Right,  Forward,  Fours  Right 212 

Fig.  22.    Carrying  Wand  Incorrectly £!S 

Fig.  23.    Method  of  Grasping  Wand 228 

Fig.  24.    Wand  Down 229 

Fig.  25.    The  Single  Pendulum 229 

Fig.  26.    The  Grasp 236 

Fig.  27.    The  Starting  Position 236 

Fig.  28.    Start  for  the  Second  Circle 237 

Fig.  29.    Finish  of  the  Second  Circle 237 

Fig.30.    Start  for  the  Half  Snake 252 

Fig.  31.    Knees  Bent  for  Fencing 253 

Fig.  32.    Hips  Firm 253 

Fig.  33.    Neck  Firm 253 


vi 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 
INTRODUCTION. 

IP  an  excuse  were  made  for  writing  this  book,  it 
would  be  that  many  teachers  of  gymnastics  need  it.  It 
cannot  be  said  that  the  book  will  contain  many  new  or 
startling  axioms,  but  it  will  try  to  prove  that  the  laws 
of  pedagogy  are  as  applicable  to  teaching  gymnastics  as 
to  teaching  the  three  R's.  In  short,  the  principles  of 
schooling  should  be  known  to  instructors  in  any  branch. 
A  teacher  may  or  may  not  be  successful.  She  may  have 
a  fund  of  knowledge  at  her  disposal  ;  her  record  in  the 
normal  school  from  which  she  graduated  may  have  been 
the  best,  yet  she  may  fail  as  an  instructor  ;  she  cannot 
impart  her  knowledge  to  others.  What  is  it  that  makes 
one  a  good  instructor,  while  another,  who  has  had  the 
same  training  and  stood  equally  well,  fails?  This  ques- 
tion will  be  discussed  in  the  following  pages.  An  at- 
tempt will  be  made  to  lay  down  teaching  rules  for  the 
one  who  trains  the  body.  Experience  is  a  good  edu- 
cator ;  a  wise  man  learns  from  the  experience  of  others. 
Consequently,  if  one  who  has  made  many  mistakes 
during  ten  years  of  tuition  makes  statements  based  upon 
his  experience,  they  should  be  of  some  value  to  the  be- 
ginner. 

It  will  be  said  that  successful  teaching  is  a  matter  of 
natural  aptitude,  or  that  the  instructor  possesses  a 
special  form  of  genius.  This  is  only  partly  true.  A 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

person  who  is  greatly  interested  in  a  subject,  and  at  the 
same  time  anxious  to  instruct  others,  can  learn  to  teach. 
If  we  were  to  enforce  the  law  that  only  those  who  were 
born  teachers  should  instruct  classes,  a  large  per  cent 
of  those  who  are  now  giving  instruction  in  this  country 
would  drop  from  the  ranks.  There  are  hundreds  of 
born  or  natural  teachers  who  never  give  instruction.  It 
would  be  impossible  to  find  them,  and  so  long  as  it  is 
necessary  for  people  who  are  not  classified  under  the 
head  of  naturalists  to  educate,  it  is  well  for  them  to  be 
guided  by  the  laws  of  pedagogy. 

It  is  time  for  our  teachers  to  read  the  various  works 
upon  the  art  of  teaching.  The  theory  of  gymnastics  is 
fascinating,  the  practice  more  so  ;  but  the  application  of 
the  many  rules  which  are  found  in  works  on  pedagogy 
has  not  yet  been  considered  by  the  majority  of  physical 
directors. 

The  object  of  this  work  is  not  to  set  forth  the  claims 
of  or  criticise  any  system  but  to  present  methods.  One 
who  has  not  taught  teachers  will  be  surprised  at  the 
limited  knowledge  of  many  of  them.  Men  and  women 
who  have  been  teaching  for  years  violate  so  many  rules 
of  what,  in  the  generally  accepted  term,  is  called  peda- 
gogy that  we  are  surprised.  The  fact  that  these  teach- 
ers keep  their  positions,  draw  fair  salaries,  and  give 
satisfaction  shows  that  this  part  of  the  subject  is  new 
not  only  to  the  instructor  but  to  the  employer. 

Experience  proves  that  the  laws  of  pedagogy  should 
be  applied  to  teaching  gymnastics,  and  while  the  author 
of  this  work  hesitates  to  rush  into  print,  he  believes 
it  imperative  that  the  teacher  should  read  more  and 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

accept  the  advice  of  others  ;  he  therefore  takes  the  in- 
itiative. Teachers  read  but  do  not  think  that  they  are 
the  ones  who  will  be  benefited  by  the  advice.  They  do 
not  understand  a  very  important  rule,  namely,  The 
pupil  must  be  put  in  a  teachable  condition.  It  makes  no 
difference  what  the  age,  the  rule  holds  good.  This  book 
will  try  to  answer  the  question,  "  How  shall  I  put  my 
pupil  in  this  condition?"  The  author's  advice  is, 
"  Don't  try  to  teach  a  class  until  they  are  '  teachable.'  " 

The  teacher  must  learn  the  value  of  bringing  herself 
into  the  lesson.  If  she  is  cross,  tired,  or  her  mind  filled 
with  thoughts  foreign  to  the  lesson,  she  would  bet- 
ter try  to  leave  herself  out  ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  she  is 
filled  with  a  desire  to  work  for  more  than  money  she  can 
fill  the  position  quite  acceptably. 

Try  to  make  the  work  simple.  Try  to  make  the  com- 
mands plain.  Be  sure  you  are  understood  by  your 
pupils.  These  are  a  few  of  the  very  important  axioms 
that  should  guide  you.  The  young  graduate  often  be- 
gins at  the  wrong  end  ;  she  has  in  her  mind  the  latest 
teaching  of  her  own  faculty,  she  has  forgotten  the 
earlier  and  simpler  advice,  and  so  she  begins  with  what 
she  learned  last. 

The  author  has  used  in  his  teaching  a  platform  ;  this 
will  form  the  basis  of  the  chapters  that  are  to  follow.  A 
portion  of  this  platform  is  given  below.  The  discussion 
of  e"ach  portion  will  be  found  on  the  pages  mentioned. 

PLATFORM. 

THESE  points  will  be  taken  into  consideration  : 
1.  Why  do  we  teach  ?    Page  115. 


OF  THB 

UNIVERSITY 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

2.  What  shall  we  teach  ? 

3.  How  shall  we  teach? 
Why  do  we  teach  gymnastics  ? 

Because  the  needs  of  the  people  demand  it. 
What  are  the  needs  ?    Page  1 15. 

1.  Better  health. 

2.  Greater  strength,  proportionately  distributed. 

3.  Better  physiques. 

4.  Grace  of  movement. 

5.  Self-control  and  self-reliance. 

6.  Nerve  and  brain  training. 

7.  Memory  exercises. 

8.  Mental  rest. 

9.  Recreation. 

What  shall  we  teach  ? 

1.  Exercises  that  meet  the  above  requirements. 

2.  Exercises  that  promote  dexterity  and  accuracy  of 

motion. 

3.  Exercises  that  make  the  body  a  better  servant  of 

the  will. 

4.  Exercises  that  induce  morality  and  require  obe- 

dience. 

5.  Exercises  that  demand  acute  observation. 

6.  Exercises  based  upon  physiological  laws. 

7.  Exercises  founded  upon  simple  principles. 

8.  Exercises  that  are  safe  and  progressive. 

9.  Exercises  that  are  interesting  to  pupils. 

10.  Exercises  that  may  be  given  in  the  class-room. 

11.  Exercises  that  are  amenable  to  the  laws  of  ped- 

agogy. 

12.  The  care  of  the   thorax  — "  How   to  breathe." 

Page  134. 

13.  What  common  physical  defects  are.     Page  149. 

14.  How  to  overcome  these  physical  defects. 

15.  How  to  stand.     Page  183. 

16.  How  to  walk.     Page  153. 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

17.  How  to  sit. 

18.  How  to  run. 

19.  How  to  develop  the  parts  of  the  body  .mentioned 

below. 

(1)  Keck.    Page  122. 

(2)  Shoulders.     Page  130. 

(3)  Arms,  wrists,  and  hands.    Page  124. 

(4)  Thorax,  and  its  contents.  4  Page  134. 

(5)  Back  and  spine. 

(6)  Waist  and  abdomen. 

(7)  Legs  and  ankles.    Page  123. 

Each  part  will  be  treated  and  classified  as  follows  : 

1.  Definition  and  divisions. 

2.  Normal  position  or  condition. 

3.  Defects. 

4.  Cause  of  these  defects. 

5.  Results  of  these  defects. 

6.  Treatment. 

7.  Results  of  treatment  on  the  parts  themselves. 

8.  On  circulation,  respiration,  digestion,  and  nerves. 

9.  Secondary  effects  of  treatment. 
10.  Esthetic  gymnastics. 

Exercises  are  primary  or  secondary.    See  page  14. 
The  motions  are  slow,  medium,  or  rapid. 
Exercises  are  classified  under  an  alphabet  of  twenty 
motions  (see  page  168)  : 

1.  Stepping.  11.  Thrusting. 

2.  Charging.  12.  Rolling. 

3.  Lunging.  13.  Opening  and  closing. 

4.  Hopping.  14.  Slapping. 

5.  Reverse  charge.  15.  Stamping. 

6.  Swaying.  16.  Circling. 

7.  Swinging.  17.  Percussing.  • 

8.  Turning  or  twisting.  18.  Shrugging. 

9.  Raising  and  lowering.  19.  Placing. 
10.  Bending  and  straightening.  20.  Breathing. 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

So  far  as  practicable  the  laws  of  Ling  will  govern  the 
arrangement  of  exercises.  They  are  : 

1.  Introductory,  or  order  movements. 

2.  Leg  " 

3.  Head  and  neck 

4.  Arm 

5.  Balance 

6.  Back  or  shoulder  " 

7.  Abdominal  " 

8.  Side  waist  " 

9.  Jumping  or  running  " 

10.  Slow  leg  " 

11.  Breathing  " 

For  a  description  of  the  day's  order  see  page  57. 

The  author  has  requested  Jakob  Bolin,  the  instructor 
in  Swedish  gymnastics  in  the  Anderson  Normal  School, 
in  New  Haven,  and  the  Chautauqua  School  of  Physical 
Education,  to  prepare  a  chapter  on  what  is  known  as 
the  Swedish  day's  order— an  excellent  arrangement  ap- 
plied to  gymnastic  movements,  and  one  that  is  now 
being  generally  adopted  by  the  American  teachers. 
There  are  reasons  for  placing  the  movements  as  they  are, 
and  inasmuch  as  the  author  wishes  to  present  this  mat- 
ter to  the  American  teachers,  he  has  asked  this  Swedish 
authority  to  write  the  chapter.  The  words,  therefore, 
are  just  as  they  come  from  Mr.  Bolin's  pen. 

The  Swedish  theory  is,  perhaps,  more  nearly  perfect 
than  that  of  any  other  system  of  gymnastics.  The 
American,  ideas  have  been  modified  and  influenced 
more  by  the  views  of  the  Swedes  than  by  the  opinions 
of  any  other  people.  It  is  not  probable  that  the  Swed- 
ish system,  as  it  is,  will  be  universally  adopted  in  this 
country,  but  there  is  no  question  about  the  influence 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

that  it  will  have  upon  our  methods.  The  day's  order  is 
used  by  the  author  in  his  teaching  at  Yale  and  at  Chau- 
tauqua.  There  is  some  doubt  in  the  minds  of  those  who 
have  tested  the  subject  whether  the  order  of  movements 
will  stand  close  investigation.  The  author  is  friendly  to 
the  Swedish  system,  but  has  made  a  few  experiments 
upon  the  position  of  exercises  in  the  day's  order.  One  of 
these  tests  will  be  given  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  the 
placing  of  the  jumping  exercises,  slow  leg,  and  breathing 
movements.  It  has  been  noticed  that  the  various  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Ling  system  do  not  agree  upon  many 
of  the  details  in  their  system. 

Mr.  Henry  S.  Anderson,  instructor  of  gymnastics  at 
the  Yale  Gymnasium,  has  assisted  me  by  acting  as 
a  model  for  the  illustrations.  Mr.  Otto  Monahan,  the 
clerk  in  the  Yale  Gymnasium,  has  also  assisted  me  in 
this  way. 

TERMS. 

THE  attention  of  the  teacher  will  be  called  at  various 
times  to  certain  names.  It  is  necessary  that  she  should 
understand  the  meaning  of  the  phrases  to  be  used.  It  is 
the  desire  of  the  instructor  that  one  term  shall  not  have 
a  number  of  different  meanings,  but  shall  refer  to  only 
one  kind  of  exercise. 

Medical  Gymnastics.  An  arrangement  of  exercises 
for  remedying  or  curing  organic  diseases,  functional  dis- 
orders, or  any  bodily  complaint  that  may  be  helped  by 
specific,  passive,  or  active  means. 

Educational  Gymnastics.  A  plan  of  exercises  designed 
for  persons  who  enjoy  moderate  health,  but  whose  bodily 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

needs  require  more  general  training  than  that  given  in 
the  specific  work  of  Medical  Gymnastics.  School  gym- 
nastics are  educational. 

Free  Gymnastics.  Exercises  that  are  given  without 
appliances. 

Light  Gymnastics.  Exercises  in  which  light  appa- 
ratus, such  as  bells,  clubs,  wands,  etc.,  are  used. 

Heavy  Gymnastics.  Exercises  on  the  bars,  bucks, 
rings,  etc. 

Military  Gymnastics.  Are  those  which  more  especially 
refer  to  marching  and  tactics. 

^Esthetic  Gymnastics.  Are  exercises  that  pertain  to 
the  beautiful.  Delsarte  work  would  be  of  this  character. 
Artistic  gymnastics  are  included  under  this  heading. 

Corrective  Gymnastics.  Are  those  which  are  given  for 
curing  common  physical  defects. 

Developing  Work.  That  which  is  given  to  build  up 
any  special  part  of  the  body. 

Free,  Light,  Heavy,  Corrective,  and  Developing  work 
are  forms  of  Educational  Gymnastics. 

Primary  Exercises.  Are  those  in  which  the  member 
of  the  body  directly  affected  is  used. 

Secondary  Exercises.  Are  those  which  bring  into 
action  other  parts  of  the  body  than  the  one  to  be  es- 
pecially developed. 

A  Simple  Exercise.  Is  one  calling  into  action  one  part 
of  the  body. 

A  Double  Exercise.  Is  one  where  two  parts  of  the 
body  are  used  in  the  same  direction. 

A  Compound  Exercise.  Is  made  with  one  or  more 
members  of  the  body  in  the  same  or  different  directions. 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

Common  Base.  Heels  touching,  toes  turned  out  at 
an  angle  of  about  60°. 

Narrow  Base.    Heels  and  toes  touching. 

Wide  Base.  Feet  separated  from  four  to  eighteen 
inches. 

Hips  Firm.    Hands  on  the  hips. 

Neck  Firm.    Hands  touching  back  of  neck. 

Letter  "  y. "    See  page  139. 

When  the  arms  are  held  shoulder  high  to  the  side,  or 
out,  the  palm  of  the  hand  may  be  down,  to  the  front,  or 
up.  The  term  that  we  use  for  the  first  position,  viz., 
Arms  out,  and  palm  of  the  hand  down,  is,  Arms  out,  a. 
If  the  palm  of  the  hand  is  turned  to  the  front,  we  would 
Bay,  Arms  out,  6.  If  the  palm  is  up,  the  position  is  de- 
scribed as  Arms  out,  c.  In  the  same  way  we  describe 
the  position  of  the  arms  when  front  or  up.  These  terms 
can  also  be  applied  to  the  exercises  taken  with  the  dumb 
bells. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

OPINIONS  OF    EDUCATORS   ON  EDUCATION. 

THERE  is  not  at  the  present  time  any  work  in  the 
English  language  chiefly  devoted  to  methods  of  teach- 
ing gymnastics.  There  are  numerous  publications  on  the 
art  or  the  science  of  teaching  mental  branches,  but  noth- 
ing on  the  subject  of  bodily  training.  The  teacher  is  a 
teacher,  whether  she  molds  the  body  or  mind,  and  it  is 
very  necessary  that  every  instructor  understand  some  of 
the  principles  of  imparting  knowledge  to  others.  One 
who  drills  a  class  of  children  in  the  Sunday-school  should 
know  how  to  teach.  The  person  placed  in  charge  of  a 
large  gymnasium  must  each  day  instruct  pupils  and  im- 
part knowledge.  Of  two  teachers  who  have  the  same 
amount  of  material  to  use,  the  one  who  understands  the 
art  of  teaching  will  produce  the  best  and  quickest  re- 
sults. 

For  nearly  ten  years  it  has  been  the  good  fortune  of 
the  author  to  be  called  upon  to  teach  teachers,  both  in 
summer  and  winter  normal  classes  of  gymnastics.  These 
lessons  have  been  given  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  in  portions  of  Canada.  During  this  time  there 
has  been  ample  opportunity  to  study  the  methods  used 
by  many  of  the  physical  directors  of  both  sexes.  One 
would  be  surprised  at  the  variety  of  plans  or  ways 

in 


OPINIONS  OF  EDUCATORS  ON  EDUCATION.  17 

adopted  by  these  teachers,  a  majority  of  whom  are  special- 
ists in  their  work.  True,  some  of  them  have  gradu- 
ated«from  teachers'  institutes  or  normal  schools  devoted 
to  mental  training,  and  are  consequently  acquainted  with 
the  principles  of  teaching.  A  few  of  this  number  have 
applied  these  principles  to  gymnastics,  but  the  remainder 
of  them  seem  to  think  that  the  elements  of  pedagogy 
are  applicable  only  to  mental  branches.  There  are  too 
many  men  and  women  teaching  gymnastics  who  know 
nothing  of  the  art  or  science  of  teaching ;  consequently, 
their  efforts  are  greater  than  they  should  be,  and  the  re- 
sults of  their  work  are  not  what  they  would  be  if  better 
methods  were  used  by  them. 

At  the  present  time,  when  the  interest  in  gymnastics 
is  greater  than  ever  before,  the  market  is  filled  with 
books  on  physical  education.  These  works  contain 
many  drills  and  arrangements  of  exercises  which  are 
more  or  less  helpful,  but  there  is  no  work  devoted  ex- 
clusively to  the  science  or  art  of  applying  principles. 
The  object  of  this  manual  is  to  prepare  a  series  of  helps 
for  the  teacher  of  physical  training — a  manual  that  will 
be  to  her  what  the  work  on  pedagogy  is  to  the  teacher 
of  mental  branches.  The  author  has  made  a  study  of 
the  various  works  by  authorities  upon  the  subject,  and 
has  at  times  quoted  freely  from  these  sources.  The  in- 
structor who  reads  one  good  work  on  pedagogy  will  find 
that  it  contains  the  gist  of  many  others. 

Whether  teaching  is  a  science  or  an  art  will  not  be  dis- 
cussed here.  It  is  not  of  so  much  importance.  There 
will  be  given  in  this  work  a  list  of  good  books,  in 
which  the  reader  can  find  chapters  pertaining  to  these 


18  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

two  questions.  That  one  ought  to  be  a  good  teacher  of 
gymnastics  if  she  teaches  at  all  is  true  ;  that  the  opinions, 
advice,  and  experience  of  others  should  guide  her  is 
equally  true.  A  good  book  may  be  approved,  but  if  such  a 
work  is  recommended  it  too  often  follows  that  it  is  never 
read.  A  few  opinions  of  educators  have  been  culled  from 
different  sources  and  are  given  in  this  chapter.  By  this 
plan  the  teacher  does  not  feel  obliged  to  purchase  new 
publications,  draw  them  from  the  city  library,  or  go  to 
any  extra  trouble  to  ascertain  what  others  think  and 
say. 

A  child  is  taught  by  one  of  these  three  principles : 
perspective  faculty,  the  expressive  faculty,  the  reflective 
faculty.  Herbert  Spencer  says  :  "Educational  systems 
are  not  made,  but  grow,  and  within  brief  periods  growth 
is  insensible."  This  is  truly  applicable  to  the  teaching 
of  gymnastics.  There  has  been  a  steady  growth  within 
the  last  five  years,  and  this  growth  must  continue.  Mr. 
Seldon  of  St.  Louis  says :  "  No  matter  how  limited  the 
strictly  scientific  domain  of  education  is  considered  to  be, 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  there  is  such  a  science,  and  it 
should  be  mastered  before  the  practical  duties  of  teach- 
ing are  assumed."  The  school-teacher  must  remember 
that  like  begets  like,  and  that  as  she  is,  so  the  school  will 
be.  She  must  be  willing  to  assume  the  duties  and  re- 
sponsibilities of  her  position.  Remember  that  pupils  are 
at  school  the  first  day  to  study  the  new  teacher,  not  the 
lesson.  The  author  remembers  the  little  school  in  a 
country  town  in  Illinois,  not  far  from  the  Mississippi 
River,  where  he  was  first  called  to  teach.  The  first  hour 
was  the  most  trying  one  ;  he  did  not  know  what  to  do, 


OPINIONS  OF  EDUCATORS  ON  EDUCATION.  19 

what  to  say,  or  just  what  the  start  should  be.  The  re- 
sult w^as  that  the  first  day's  teaching  was  not  satisfac- 
tory to  the  school-directors  nor  to  the  teacher,  but  it 
seemed  to  be  so  to  the  pupils,  because  they  had  a  good 
time.  It  has  been  said  that  husbands  who  start  in  their 
matrimonial  career  as  lieutenants  never  receive  pro- 
motion, and  that  a  teacher  is  rarely  promoted  in  the 
school  in  which  she  has  not  earned  her  position  at  the 
close  of  the  first  day. 

This  is  just  as  true  of  teaching  gymnastics  as  it  is  of 
teaching  the  other  branches.  Professor  Bain  says :  "The 
teaching  method  is  arrived  at  in  various  ways.  One 
principal  mode  is  experience  in  the  work.  This  is  the 
inductive,  or  practical  course.  Another  mode  is  deduc- 
tion from  the  laws  of  the  human  mind.  This  is  the  de- 
ductive, or  theoretical  course.  The  third  and  best  mode 
is  to  combine  the  two,  rectify  empirical  teaching  by 
principles,  and  to  qualify  deductions  from  principles  by 
practical  experience."  Mr.  J.  R.  Blackston,  one  of  Her 
Majesty's  inspectors  of  schools  in  England,  says  :  "  The 
least  gifted  may  take  heart  when  he  bethinks  him  that 
success  in  school  management  depends  mainly  on 
watchful  and  unremitting  attention  to  little  details  and 
grappling  with  every  difficulty  as  it  arises.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  decide  how  much  development  is  possible 
for  the  human  race  in  time.  The  question  to  be  settled 
is,  Can  man  be  raised  to  a  higher  plane,  physically,  in- 
tellectually, and  morally,  and  may  his  upward  tendency 
become  stronger  and  more  controlling  as  he  advances?  " 

The  art  of  school-teaching,  or  teaching  gymnastics, 
consists  in  the  skilful  application  of  the  great  body  of 


20  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

rules  and  methods  deduced  from  science,  observation, 
experience,  and  practice.  Dr.  Dickinson  says  :  "  Suc- 
|Cessful  teaching  is  the  product  of  knowledge,  skill,  and 
experience.  The  teacher  must  have  a  good  knowledge 
of  the  facts  he  is  to  teach,  of  the  sciences  which  rest  upon 
them,  and  of  the  end  to  be  secured  by  school-work.  He 
must  have  skill  in  applying  his  method,  or  he  will  fail 
to  awaken  right  ideas,  or  he  will  do  for  the  pupil  what 
the  pupil  should  do  for  himself,  or  he  will  talk  too  much, 
or  teach  what  is  not  worth  knowing.  He  must  have 
experience,  or  he  will  be  liable  to  violate  all  the  princi- 
ples of  good  teaching  in  attempting  to  apply  them." 
Mill  says :  "  The  discipline  that  does  good  to  the 
mind  is  that  in  which  the  mind  is  active  and  not  pass- 
ive. The  secret  of  developing  the  faculties  is  to  give 
them  much  to  do  and  much  inducement  to  do  it."  In  a 
conversation  with  Professor  Hughes  of  Canada,  at 
Chautauqua,  during  the  season  of  1892,  he  said,  after 
watching  the  classes  for  an  hour  :  "  My  criticism  of  the 
present  method  of  teaching  gymnastics  would  be  that 
the  teacher  does  too  much  for  the  scholars,  while  the 
pupils  merely  imitate  or  copy."  Would  not  gymnastics 
produce  better  results  if  they  were  so  planned  and  so 
taught  that  the  scholar  would  not  only  think,  but  would 
act,  depending  upon  himself?  The  Swedes  claim  that 
this  is  one  of  the  strong  arguments  in  favor  of  their 
system  of  physical  education.  It  is  not  well  for  the 
teacher  to  do  too  much  for  the  scholar,  neither  is  it  wise 
to  always  lead  or  give  too  many  commands.  Pupils  will 
soon  form  the  habit  of  depending  entirely  upon  the 
leader. 


OF  THTB 

UNIVERSITY 

OPINIONS  OF  EDUCATORS  S^JpgjjEp^HH^X     21 

The  teacher  must  be  fit  for  more  than  the  thing  she 
has  to  do.  "  If  she  is  not  too  large  for  the  place,  she  is 
too  small  for  it."  The  teacher  should  appreciate  the 
value  of  a  general  knowledge,  and  understand  that  much 
of  her  success  depends  upon  the  study  of  the  child  or  of 
the  pupil.  Too  little  attention  is  paid  to  this  part  of  the 
education  of  the  teacher.  She  seems  to  fall  into  a  habit, 
or,  as  has  been  said,  "  to  get  into  a  rut."  It  is  hard  to 
change  habits  that  have  been  formed  by  years  of  prac- 
tice and  experience.  The  one  who  notices  and  studies 
will  be  better  able  to  instruct  children,  to  deal  with 
them,  than  one  who  is  satisfied  to  stand  before  the  class, 
give  a  cut-and-dried  lesson,  and  who  has  not  at  the  end 
of  each  day  learned  or  taught  something  new. 

There  is  no  question  about  the  value  of  methods  of 
teaching  in  gymnastics.  The  teacher  should  begin  at 
the  beginning  ;  but  the  question  arises,  What  is  the  be- 
ginning? In  the  first  place,  the  teacher  should  under- 
stand why  gymnastics  are  taught. 

The  reader  will  notice  that  most  of  the  advice  is  given 
as  if  to  those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  teaching  children. 
This  is  so.  The  teacher  of  a  child  is  more  apt  to  be  able 
to  instruct  adults  than  the  instructor  of  adults  to  teach 
children. 

It  is  an  axiom  in  the  art  of  teaching  that  it  is  what 
the  child  does  for  himself  and  by  himself,  under  wise 
guidance,  that  educates  him.  Tyndall  says  :  "  The  ex- 
ercise of  the  mind,  like  that  of  the  body,  depends  for  its 
value  upon  the  spirit  in  which  it  is  accomplished.  The 
child  should  be  told  as  little  as  possible,  but  induced  to 
discover  as  much  as  possible."  The  unskilled  teacher 


22  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

blunders  along  as  if  the  great  educators  Mill,  Spencer, 
Froebel,  and  Pestalozzi  had  never  lived.  He  recognizes 
no  educational  authority  but  himself.  He  teaches  in 
the  good  old  way  handed  down  by  imitation  from  the 
past,  and  is  a,  law  unto  himself.  Carlyle  says :  '*  My 
teachers  were  hidebound  pedants,  without  knowledge  of 
man's  nature  or  of  boys',  or  of  aught  save  lexicons." 
This  rule  applies  forcibly  to  teachers  of  gymnastics,  to 
those  liable  to  be  placed  in  the  list  mentioned  by  Carlyle. 

As  is  the  teacher,  so  is  the  school— a  maxim  that  has 
been  often  quoted  from  John  Philbrick,  the  ex-superin- 
tendent of  the  Boston  schools.  The  teacher  should 
avoid  recasting  everything  in  the  mold  of  his  own  ideas. 
He  is  in  danger  of  overestimating  his  powers,  because 
he  is  seldom  questioned  in  his  assertions,  the  child  is 
not  given  an  opportunity  to  discuss,  arguing  does  not 
take  place. 

Attention  is  called  to  some  of  the  main  principles  of 
Ratich.  With  a  few  modifications  they  represent  the 
views  of  that  band  of  educational  innovators  who  came 
into  the  field  at  his  time  and  later.  Among  them  we 
find  Comenius,  Locke,  Rousseau,  Basedow,  Pestalozzi, 
Froebel,  and  Jacotot.  The  principles  which  will  be  of 
assistance  to  the  teacher  of  gymnastics  are  these  : 

First.  Everything  after  the  order  and  course  of 
nature,  for  everything  unnatural,  violent,  and  forced  is 
hurtful,  both  in  teaching  and  learning,  and  in  fact  en- 
feebles nature. 

Second.  One  thing  at  a  time,  for  nothing  hinders  the 
exercise  of  the  understanding  more  than  the  attempt  to 
grasp  many  things  at  once. 


OPINIONS  OF  EDUCATORS  ON  EDUCATION.  23 

Third.  One  thing  again  and  again  repeated.  What 
is  often  repeated  is  clearly  and  profoundly  conceived  of 
by  the  understanding,  for  it  is  incredible  what  can  be 
accomplished  by  the  frequent  repetition  of  one  thing. 

Fourth.  Everything  without  coercion,  for  through 
coercion  and  blows  children  learn  to  hate  study. 

Fifth.  Nothing  is  learned  by  rote,  for  in  learning 
by  rote  the  attention  is  fixed  on  the  words  and  not  on 
the  ideas  ;  but  if  a  thing  is  thoroughly  grasped  by  the 
understanding  the  memory  retains  it  without  further 
trouble. 

Sixth.  Uniformity  of  plan  in  all  things,  for  this  is  a 
help  to  the  understanding.  There  must  be  plan,  method, 
and  system. 

Seventh.  Everything  through  experimental  analysis, 
for  bare  authority  is  of  no  value  in  the  absence  of  cause 
and  reason. 

These  are  some  of  the  principles  of  Ration.  This  rep- 
resentative of  the  education  of  the  innovators  believed 
that  his  plans  would  produce  the  best  results  ;  he  aimed 
especially  at  making  education  a  real  development  and 
training  of  the  mind,  while  the  development  of  the  bod- 
ily powers  was  also  put  forward  as  an  important  object. 

"  Froebel  is  the  first  teacher  to  whom  it  has  occurred 
to  convert  what  is  usually  considered  the  waste  steam  of 
childish  activities  and  energies  into  the  means  of  fruit- 
ful action  ;  to  utilize  what  has  hitherto  been  looked  upon 
as  unworthy  of  notice,  and,  moreover,  to  accomplish  this 
object,  not  only  without  repressing  the  naturally  free 
spirit  of  childhood,  but  by  making  that  free  spirit  the 
very  instrument  of  his  purpose."  "At  the  same  time 


24  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

the  bodily  powers — hands,  feet,  muscles,  senses — under 
the  influence  and  impulse  of  companionship,  are  more 
actively  exercised,  and  the  health  of  the  constitution 
thereby  promoted,  while  a  larger  and  better  opportunity 
is  supplied  for  learning  the  resources  of  the  mother 
tongue."  (That  is,  when  the  children  are  gathered  in  a 
kindergarten. )  Payne  pictures  Froebel  watching  a  group 
of  children  at  play,  and  reaching  this  conclusion : 
11  Such,  then,  appear  to  be  the  manifold  meanings  of  the 
boundless  spontaneous  activity  that  I  witness.  But 
what  name,  after  all,  must  I  give  to  the  totality  of  the 
phenomena  exhibited  before  me?  I  must  call  them 
play.  Play,  then,  is  spontaneous  activity  ending  in  the 
satisfaction  of  the  natural  desire  of  the  child  for  pleas- 
ure— for  happiness.  Play  is  the  natural,  the  appropriate 
business  and  occupation  of  the  child  left  to  his  own  re- 
sources. The  child  that  does  not  play  is  not  a  perfect 
child.  He  wants  something — sense,  organ,  limb,  or  gen- 
erally what  we  imply  by  the  term  health — to  make  up 
our  ideal  of  a  child.  The  healthy  child  plays — plays  con- 
tinually— cannot  but  play I  see  that  these 

children  delight  in  movement ;  they  are  always  walking 
or  running,  jumping,  hopping,  tossing  their  limbs  about, 
and,  moreover,  they  are  pleased  with  rhythmical  move- 
ment. I  can  contrive  motives  and  means  for  the  same 
exercise  of  the  limbs,  which  shall  result  in  increased 
physical  power,  and  consequently  health — shall  train 
the  children  to  a  conscious  and  measured  command  of 
their  bodily  functions,  and  at  the  same  time  be  accom- 
panied by  the  attraction  of  rhythmical  sound  through 
song  or  instrument." 


OPINIONS  OF  EDUCATORS  ON  EDUCATION.  25 

A  few  lines  from  this  famous  teacher  are  quoted  not 
so  much  for  the  benefit  of  the  pupil  as  for  that  of  the 
teacher  herself.  Any  one  giving  lessons  in  physical 
training  will  be  benefited  by  carefully  considering  the 
advice  which  may  be  found  in  the  method  of  universal 
instruction.  Payne  sums  up  the  principles  of  Jacotot,  in 
part,  when  he  represents  him  as  saying:  "I  am  to  be 
the  guide  and  friend,  not  the  bearer,  of  my  pupil.  The 
journey  we  are  to  make  together  he  must  make  on  his 
own  legs,  not  mine.  'Use  legs  and  have  legs,'  that  is 
the  maxim  for  our  practice  ;  not  use  mine  that  he  may 
gain  the  free  use  of  his  own  ;  but  so  use  his  own  now, 
that  by  labor  and  discipline  they  may  become  strong, 
robust,  and  well  developed,  and  thus  be  prepared  for  the 
ensuing  journey  of  life.  In  brief,  (1)  learn  ;  (2)  repeat ; 
(3)  reflect ;  (4)  verify.  This  is  the  method  of  Jacotot— 
of  the  Universal  Instruction." 

Writing  of  Dr.  Arnold,  of  Rugby,  Payne  says  :  "  The 
bright  example  of  excellence  in  the  personal  character  or 
the  work  of  a  successful  teacher  ought  to  be,  must  be, 
operative  on  the  character  and  work  of  every  teacher  who 
carefully  and  admiringly  studies  it.  In  the  case  before 
us,  what  ought  to  have  taken  place  has  taken  place,  for 
it  is  beyond  a  doubt  that  Arnold's  life  as  an  educator  has 
greatly  influenced  the  professional  lives  of  other  educa- 
tors  How  important  this  is  must  be  acknowl- 
edged by  the  personal  experience  of  every  teacher  now 
before  me,  for  it  is  not  merely  what  we  do,  but  what  we 
by  our  example  cause  others  to  do,  that  really  defines 
our  power.  Every  one  of  us  is  continually,  though  quite 
unconsciously,  photographing  his  characteristic  features 


26  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

on  the  minds  of  those  around  him,  with  a  force  propor- 
tioned to  the  light  upon  the  object  and  the  proper  action 
of  the  receiving  surface." 

Speaking  of  Pestalozzi,  Mr.  Payne  says  :  "In  spite, 
then,  of  his  patent  disqualification  in  many  respects  for 
the  task  he  undertook,  in  spite  of  his  ignorance  of  even 
common  subjects — for  he  spoke,  read,  wrote,  and  ciphered 
badly,  and  knew  next  to  nothing  of  classics  or  science — 
in  spite  of  his  want  of  worldly  wisdom,  of  any  per- 
ception and  exact  knowledge  of  men  and  of  things,  in 
spite  of  his  being  merely  an  elementary  teacher  ;  through 
the  force  of  his  all-conquering  love,  the  nobility  of  his 
heart,  the  resistless  energy  of  his  enthusiasm,  his  firm 
grasp  of  a  few  first  principles,  his  eloquent  exposition  of 
them  in  words,  his  resolute  manifestation  of  them  in 
deeds,  he  stands  forth  among  educational  reformers  as 
the  man  whose  influence  on  education  is  wider,  deeper, 
more  penetrating  than  that  of  all  the  rest — the  prophet 
and  sovereign  of  the  domain  in  which  he  lived  and 
labored." 

Pedagogy  and  Education.  "  Many  writers  still  con- 
found pedagogy  with  education.  There  is  more  than  a 
shade  of  difference  between  these  two  terms.  Pedagogy, 
so  to  speak,  is  the  theory  of  education,  and  education 
the  practice  of  pedagogy.  Just  as  one  may  be  a  rhetor- 
ician without  being  an  orator,  so  one  may  be  a  peda- 
gogue— that  is,  may  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
rules  of  education— without  being  an  educator— without 
having  practical  skill  in  the  training  of  children." — 
PAYNE. 

Compayre  uses  the  terms  pedagogy  and  pedagogue  in 


OPINIONS  OF  EDUCATORS  ON   EDUCATION.  27 

the  senses  given.  A  writer  who  discusses  educational 
questions  from  the  theoretical  point  of  view  is  a  peda- 
gogue, and  his  treatise  is  a  work  on  pedagogy  ;  while  a 
man  who  directs  educational  affairs  without  actually 
teaching,  as  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction  or  of 
schools,  is  an  educator.  Education  in  its  theoretical  or 
scientific  aspect  is  pedagogy,  while  in  its  practical  aspect, 
or  in  its  art  phase,  it  is  educational. 

The  Relation  of  Pedagogy  to  Psychology.  As  the 
physician  ought  to  know  the  organs  of  the  body  which 
he  treats,  and  their  functions,  the  farmer  the  nature  of 
the  soil  he  cultivates,  the  sculptor  the  qualities  of  the 
marble  he  chisels  and  of  the  clay  which  he  kneads,  so 
the  teacher  cannot  do  without  the  knowledge  of  the 
laws  of  the  mental  organization. 

"  In  truth,  the  rules  for  teaching  are  but  the  laws  of 
psychology  applied,  transformed  into  practical  maxims, 
and  tested  by  experience.  Psychology  is  the  basis  of  all 
the  practical  sciences  which  have  to  do  with  the  moral 
faculties  of  man ;  but  the  other  sciences  which  are  de- 
rived from  psychology  treat  of  but  certain  energies  of 
the  human  soul— logic  of  thought,  aesthetics,  of  the 
sentiment  of  the  beautiful,  ethics  of  the  soul.  Pedagogy 
alone  embraces  all  faculties  of  the  soul,  and  should  put 
under  contribution  the  whole  of  psychology." — PAYNE. 

"The  purpose  of  education  is  to  give  to  the  body  and 
soul  all  the  beauty  and  all  the  perfection  of  which  they 
are  capable."— PLATO. 

11  Education  is  the  development  in  man  of  all  the  per- 
fection which  his  nature  permits." — KANT. 

11  To  educate  a  child  is  to  put  him   in  a  condition  to 


28  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

fulfil  as  perfectly  as  possible  the  purpose  of  his  life." — 
DE  SAUSSURE. 

"  Education  includes  whatever  we  do  for  ourselves  and 
whatever  is  done  for  us  by  others  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  bringing  us  nearer  to  the  perfection  of  our 
nature."— MILL. 

"Education  is  preparation  for  complete  living." — 
HERBERT  SPENCER. 

"  Education  is  at  once  the  art  and  the  science  of  guid- 
ing the  young  and  of  putting  them  in  a  condition,  by 
the  aid  of  instruction,  through  the  power  of  emulation 
and  good  example,  to  obtain  the  triple  good  assigned  to 
man  by  his  religious,  social,  and  national  destination." 

— NlEMEYER. 

"  Education  is  the  harmonious  development  of  the 
physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  faculties." — DENZEL. 

"Education  is  the  process  by  which  one  mind  forms  an- 
other mind,  and  one  heart  another  heart. " — JULES  SIMON. 

"Education  is  the  sum  of  the  intentional  actions  by 
means  of  which  man  attempts  to  raise  his  fellows  to 
perfection. ' ' —MARION. 

"  Education  is  the  sum  of  the  efforts  whose  purpose  is 
to  give  to  man  the  complete  possession  and  correct  use 
of  his  different  faculties."— JOLY. 

"  The  end  of  education  is  to  render  the  individual  as 
much  as  possible  an  instrument  of  happiness  to  him- 
self, and  hence  to  other  beings." — MILL. 

"  Education  is  the  art  of  bringing  up  children  and  of 
forming  men."— ROUSSEAU. 

Chauvet  says  :  "  Whoever  undertakes  the  education 
of  another  should  begin  by  completing  his  own." 


CHAPTER  II. 

OPINIONS  OF  EDUCATORS  ON  PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 

OUR  young  teachers  are  frequently  called  upon  to 
argue  in  favor  of  physical  training.  They  are  made  to 
feel  that  their  own  opinions  do  not  carry  enough  weight 
and  that  the  reasoning  of  modern  educators  is  not  suf- 
ficiently cogent.  A  few  pages  are  therefore  set  aside  for 
the  opinions  of  some  of  the  world's  greatest  teachers.  It 
is  gratifying  that  these  expressions  are  favorable  to 
rational  gymnastics. 

The  teacher  is  urged  to  read  Spencer  on  education  ;  his 
writings  on  this  and  other  phases  of  training  are  inspir- 
ing. The  author  has  looked  through  the  history  of  edu- 
cation, going  as  far  back  as  the  Greeks,  and  has  selected  a 
few  opinions  from  the  representatives  of  different  schools. 

Physical  Training  Among  the  Greeks.  The  following 
passage,  which  is  taken  from  Xenophon's  Memorabilia, 
quoted  by  Professor  Mahaffy,  will  give  the  teacher  an 
idea  of  the  value  which  was  placed  upon  the  care  of  the 
body  by  this  wonderful  nation.  The  teacher  who  is 
anxious  to  read  the  entire  quotation,  together  with 
others,  is  referred  to  the  work  of  Professor  Mahaffy. 
Socrates  meets  a  young  man,  one  of  his  friends,  and  see- 
ing that  he  is  in  poor  bodily  condition,  reproves  him. 
Among  other  things,  he  says  :  "  Moreover,  these  things 
[i.  e.,  the  care  of  the  body]  are  not  to  be  neglected  in 

29 


30  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

private  life  because  the  state  does  not  happen  to  be  en- 
gaged publicly  in  warlike  operations.  They  require,  on 
the  other  hand,  no  less  attention  in  times  of  peace.  I 
would  have  you  know  that  neither  in  any  other  struggle 
nor  in  any  kind  of  practical  life,  will  you  get  on  worse 
because  you  have  brought  your  body  into  good  condition, 
for  the  body  is  useful  in  all  pursuits  which  men  engage 
in,  in  all  matters  in  which  the  body  is  useful  it  is  of  great 
importance  to  have  it  in  the  best  possible  condition. 
And  even  in  those  things  in  which  you  may  think  the 
body  is  less  useful,  namely,  in  intellectual  pursuits,  who 
does  not  know  that,  even  in  these,  many  men  fall  into 
great  aberrations  through  not  possessing  good  bodily 
health?  Nay,  weakness  of  memory,  low  spirits,  ill  tem- 
per, even  insanity,  often  penetrate  the  minds  of  many 
persons  so  deeply,  through  their  bad  physical  condition, 
as  to  cast  out  and  dispossess  knowledge  itself.  There  is 
a  great  security,  on  the  other  hand,  for  those  whose 
bodies  are  in  good  condition.  They  run  no  risk  of  suffer- 
ing any  such  evils  through  a  low  physical  condition. 
Rather  it  is  natural  that  good  bodily  health  conduces  to 
the  very  contrary  of  those  evils  which  arise  from  bad 
health.  What  is  there  that  any  reasonable  man  may 
not  undergo  for  the  sake  of  securing  the  opposite  of  these 
evils  which  I  have  spoken  of?  It  is  disgraceful  that  any 
one,  through  want  of  attention  to  these  matters,  should 
grow  old  without  seeing  what  sort  of  a  man  he  can  be- 
come by  making  his  body  as  well  developed  and  robust 
as  possible,  and  this  no  one  can  know  who  does  not  pay 
proper  attention  to  these  things,  for  they  do  not  come  of 
their  own  accord  and  unsought." 


OPINIONS  ON  PHYSICAL,  EDUCATION.  31 

I  have  quoted  at  length  from  the  old  philosopher,  be- 
cause I  wish  to  speak  of  the  physical  condition  of  the 
Greeks  themselves.  One  who  has  made  a  study  of  the 
history  of  education  will  be  impressed  with  the  fact  that 
the  greatest  and  most  successful  nations  in  the  world 
have  been  those  who  have  regularly  cared  for  the  body. 
Not  much  is  known  of  the  early  Chinese,  Indian,  Egyp- 
tian, and  Persian  education,  although  we  may  learn  more 
of  the  Jewish  education  by  looking  into  the  history  of 
this  people.  It  is  not  until  we  pass  on  to  Greek  educa- 
tion that  we  find  the  most  splendid  types  of  high  intel- 
lectual order  that  the  world  has  ever  produced. 

The  first  duty  of  the  Greek  boy  was  to  learn  his  let- 
ters, which  was  coincident  with  learning  to  swim;  so 
that  we  hear  the  saying:  "  'One  who  knows  neither 
swimming  nor  his  letters '  was  the  Greek  term  for  an 
ignoramus."  At  the  age  of  fourteen  the  Greek  boy 
would  have  begun  to  devote  himself  to  the  practice  of 
athletics.  The  ardor  shown  in  their  pursuit  by  both  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans  is  often  used  as  an  argument  for 
our  devotion  to  these  sports  at  the  present  time.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  this  double  attention  to  the  welfare  of 
the  body  caused  the  Greeks  to  become  "  the  most  beauti- 
ful, as  well  as  the  most  gifted  of  mankind." 

The  Greeks,  while  they  prized  athletic  distinction,  did 
not  hold  the  professional  athlete  in  high  honor.  Eurip- 
ides denounced  the  race  of  athletes  in  strong  language. 
The  enthusiasm  shown  by  Homer  and  Pindar  for  bodily 
strength  had  become  weaker  in  the  days  of  Pericles. 
Gymnastics  and  music  were  closely  associated.  It  has 
been  said  that  if  a  Greek  youth  had  by  continuous  prac- 


32  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

tice  become  stronger  than  a  bull,  more  truthful  than  the 
godhead,  wiser  than  the  most  learned  Egyptian  priest, 
his  fellow-citizens  would  shrug  their  shoulders  at  him 
in  contempt  if  he  did  not  possess  what  a  series  of  gym- 
nastics and  music  alone  can  give — a  sense  of  gracefulness 
and  proportion.  Plato  wished  that  the  years  from  seven- 
teen to  twenty  could  be  devoted  to  athletics  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  art  of  war.  The  first  part  of  the  translation 
quoted  above,  in  which  Socrates  discusses  the  subject 
with  his  friends,  was  devoted  to  the  preparation  for  war, 
and  not  for  peace. 

Aristotle  made  his  order  of  education,  first  bodily,  sec- 
ond morally,  third  scientific.  He  says  :  "  First  in  educa- 
tion will  come  gymnastics  ;  but  this  is  intended  to  make 
men  athletes,  not  to  develop  brute  force.  It  is  to  pro- 
duce courage,  which  is  a  mean  between  the  unbridled 
wildness  of  the  animal  and  the  sluggishness  of  the  cow- 
ard. Too  much  weight  must  not  be  given  to  athletics, 
lest  the  child  be  spoiled  ;  body  and  mind  must  not  be 
hard  worked  at  the  same  time.  Gymnastics  are  only  re- 
garded as  a  preparation  for  the  education  of  the  soul. 
This  is  greatly  assisted  by  music."  To-day  our  young 
men  make  gymnastic  ability  the  end  itself,  and  not  the 
means. 

Roman  and  Early  Christian  Education.  The  Roman 
education  was,  in  distinction  from  that  of  the  Athenian, 
eclectic.  This  term  "  eclectic  "  was  used  then  and  is  used 
now,  and  is  an  epithet  which  in  itself  denotes  *'  chosen 
from  others,"  and  is  therefore  not  original  and  self 
derived.  "  It  is  the  very  mark  or  stamp  of  a  practical 
mind  to  gather  from  every  quarter  that  which  will  aid 


OPINIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION.  33 

its  own  purposes  ;  therefore,  if  its  own  resources  are  in- 
sufficient or  unsuitable,  to  avail  itself  freely  of  the  re- 
sources of  others.  The  Romans  have  been  reproached, 
and  justly,  with  a  want  of  originality  in  thinking,  but 
they  cannot  be  reproached  with  indifference  to  the  orig- 
inality of  others." 

A  statement  has  been  made  by  a  well-known  gymnas- 
tic instructor  derogatory  to  the  teacher  who  chooses  the 
best  from  every  system.  I  must  take  issue  with  the  one 
who  makes  this  statement.  In  the  first  place,  he  cer- 
tainly could  not  expect  us  to  choose  that  which  was  not 
good  in  any  system.  He  must  know  that  the  American 
people  are  independent,  original,  and  ingenious  enough 
to  ultimately  create  a  system  ;  that  they  are  some- 
what like  the  Romans,  and  will  borrow  from  others ; 
that  they  will  never  adopt  bodily  the  system  of  gym- 
nastics recommended  by  the  Germans,  Swedes,  or  the 
authors  of  Delsartism  ;  and  that  they  will  mold  their 
views  and  their  opinions  by  the  experience,  advice,  and 
wisdom  of  others.  Therefore,  I  say  to  the  young  teacher 
of  gymnastics,  until  this  time  comes  you  are  to  take  the 
best  from  other  systems  ;  certainly  not  the  worst,  nor 
even  the  parts  that  are  fairly  good. 

In  finishing  the  chapter  devoted  to  Greek  and  Roman 
education,  let  me  quote  from  Browning,  who  says,  in 
his  educational  theories :  "  The  Greek  and  Roman 
ideals  are  the  complement  of  each  other.  On  the  one 
side,  man,  beautiful,  active,  clever,  receptive,  emotional, 
quick  to  feel  and  to  show  his  feeling,  to  argue,  to  refine  ; 
greedy  of  the  pleasures  of  the  world,  if  a  little  neglect- 
ful of  its  duties,  fearing  restraint  as  an  unjust  stinting 


34  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

of  the  bounty  of  nature,  inquiring  into  every  secret, 
strongly  attached  to  the  things  of  this  life  but  elevated 
by  an  unabated  striving  after  the  highest  ideal.  On  the 
other  side,  man,  practical,  energetic,  eloquent,  tinged 
but  not  imbued  with  philosophy,  trained  to  spare  neither 
himself  nor  others,  reading  and  thinking  only  with  an 
apology,  ....  best  engaged  in  leading  armies 
through  unexplored  deserts,  establishing  roads,  fortresses, 
settlements,  as  the  results  of  conquest,  or  in  ordering 
and  superintending  the  slow,  certain,  and  utter  anni- 
hilation of  every  enemy  of  Rome.  Has  the  Christian 
world  ever  surpassed  this  type  ?  Can  we  produce  any- 
thing by  education  in  modern  times,  except  by  combin- 
ing, blending,  and  modifying  the  self-culture  of  the 
Greek  and  the  self-sacrifice  of  the  Romans?  " 

During  the  age  of  chivalry,  which  followed  the  Roman 
education,  attention  was  paid  to  a  curriculum  of  seven 
sciences.  The  young  squire  had  his  own  seven  accom- 
plishments to  learn,  viz.  :  reading,  swimming,  shooting 
with  the  bow,  boxing,  hunting,  chess-playing,  and 
verse-making.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  attention 
was  paid  to  outdoor  sports,  and  something  to  the  care  of 
the  body. 

The  ^Reformers.  It  will  be  well  to  mention  one  or  two 
of  the  reformers  who  paid  strict  attention  to  the  care  of 
the  body  and  who  were  at  the  same  time  molders  of  the 
modern  education.  Luther  would  have  things,  as  well 
as  words,  taught  in  the  school — mathematics,  history, 
logic,  gymnastics,  and  music.  "Music,"  he  says,  "is 
the  best  of  all  the  arts.  It  dispels  the  sorrow  of  the 
breast.  If  a  schoolmaster  does  not  know  music  I  have 


OPINIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION.  35 

nothing  to  say  to  him.  Music  is  a  beautiful,  divine  gift 
of  God,  and  next  to  theology."  Luther,  in  his  own 
teaching,  closely  associates  music  with  gymnastics. 

Another  of  the  great  reformers  was  Trotzendorf,  rector 
of  the  school  at  Goldberg.  In  his  teaching  he  was  care- 
ful to  promote  the  physical  education  by  gymnastic  ex- 
ercises. He  allowed  his  boys  to  run  and  wrestle  in  the 
playground,  praised  the  successful,  blamed  the  bunglers, 
and  yet  made  a  special  law  forbidding  them  to  bathe  in 
the  summer  or  go  upon  the  ice  in  the  winter  and  to  di- 
vert themselves  with  snowballing.  This  seems  incon- 
sistent, and  indicated  the  prevailing  defective  views  at 
that  time  upon  the  subject  of  physical  training.  Mel- 
ancthon  says  that  Trotzendorf  was  as  much  born  to  drill 
a  school  as  Scipio  Africanus  to  drill  an  army.  If,  in  the 
opinion  of  such  a  man  as  Melancthon,  he  was  compe- 
tent, we  may  connect  the  care  of  the  body  with  the  suc- 
cess that  his  scholars  attained. 

Montaigne  says  :  "  I  would  have  the  youth's  outward 
behavior  and  mien  and  the  disposition  of  his  limbs 
formed  at  the  same  time  with  his  mind.  It  is  not  a  soul, 
it  is  not  a  body,  that  we  are  training  up,  but  a  man,  and 
we  ought  not  to  divide  him." 

The  views  of  Locke  on  physical  education  will  be  in- 
teresting because,  with  few  exceptions,  they  are  in  accord 
with  the  rules  for  athletic  training  at  the  present  day. 
He  was  a  partisan  of  what  was  then  called,  and  is  now 
frequently  termed,  the  "hardening  system";  but,  as 
another  author  has  tersely  put  it,  some  of  his  plans 
would  very  soon  harden  many  out  of  the  world.  His 
precepts  for  physical  training  do  not  seriously  conflict 


36  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

with  the  modern  practice  of  hygiene,  except  in  one  or 
two  matters  about  which  he  had  peculiar  notions  or,  as 
the  modern  phrase  is,  fads.  His  views  may  be  summed 
up  in  this  paragraph,  taken  from  Mr.  Quick  : 

"And  thus  I  have  done  with  what  concerns  the  body 
and  life,  which  reduces  itself  to  these  few  and  easily  ob- 
served rules :  plenty  of  open  air,  exercise,  and  sleep, 
plain  diet,  no  wine  or  strong  drink,  and  very  little  or 
no  physic,  not  too  warm  or  strait  clothing,  especially  the 
head  and  feet  kept  cool,  and  the  feet  often  used  to  cold 
water  and  exposed  to  wet."  Here  the  only  point  open 
to  criticism  is  the  strange  notion  of  keeping  the  chil- 
dren's feet  cold  and  wet,  which  would  now  be  considered 
a  dangerous  blunder. 

Rousseau  says  that  there  are  two  important  points  to 
be  kept  in  mind ;  the  first,  that  to  teach  children  wisely 
and  efficiently  we  must  know  child  nature ;  the  second, 
that  without  such  knowledge  we  cannot  really  sympa- 
thize with  that  nature.  He  says  :  "Exercise,  therefore, 
not  only  the  physical  strength  but  also  the  senses  that 
direct  it,  make  the  best  possible  use  of  each,  and  verify 
the  impressions  of  one  by  those  of  another.  To  learn  to 
think,  therefore,  we  should  learn  to  exercise  our  limbs, 
senses,  organs,  since  these  are  the  instruments  of  our  in- 
telligence, and  in  order  to  make  the  best  use  of  these  in- 
struments it  is  necessary  that  the  body  which  produced 
them  should  be  robust  and  healthy.  Thus,  so  far  is  a 
sound  instinct  from  being  independent  of  the  body  that 
it  is  owing  to  a  good  constitution  that  the  operations  of 
the  mind  are  effected  with  ease  and  certainty." 

The  naturalist  Rabelais  lays  great  stress  upon  physical 


OPINIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION.  37 

exercise.  The  list  of  physical  exercises  which  Gargantua 
was  called  upon  to  perform  is  given  with  the  usual  en- 
thusiasm of  this  author.  Of  the  chief  points  upon  which 
Rabelais  insists,  viz.,  the  teaching  through  the  senses, 
independence  of  thought,  training  for  practical  life, 
equal  development  of  mind  and  body,  general  treatment, 
and  improved  methods,  the  last  three  are  in  close  touch 
with  physical  or  bodily  training. 

According  to  Milton,  the  first  step  in  the  education  of 
pupils  is  to  make  them  "despise  and  scorn  all  their 
childish  and  ill-taught  qualities,  to  delight  in  manly  and 
liberal  exercises,  to  infuse  into  their  young  hearts  such 
ingenious  and  noble  ardor  as  will  not  fail  to  make  many 
of  them  renowned  and  matchless  men."  It  will  be 
noticed  also  that  with  Milton,  amusement,  emulation, 
bodily  skill,  cheerfulness  of  bright  companionship,  are 
all  associated  with  physical  training.  He  recommended 
"the  art  of  the  sword,  to  guard,  to  strike  safely  with 
edge  or  point,  to  practice  in  all  the  locks  and  grips  of 
wrestling,  which  exercises  will  keep  pupils  healthy, 
strong,  and  well  in  breath.  It  is  also  the  likeliest  means 
to  make  them  grow  large,  tall,  and  to  inspire  them  with 
a  gallant  and  fearless  courage." 

"Physical  training  and  drill  should  be  a  part  of  the 
regular  business  of  school.  There  is  no  real  difficulty 
about  teaching  the  drill  and  the  simpler  kinds  of  gym- 
nastics. If  something  of  the  kind  is  not  done,  the 
physique  which  has  been  and  still  is,  on  the  whole,  a 
grand  one,  will  become  in  the  great  towns  as  extinct  as 
a  dodo."— HUXLEY. 

"Play  is  the  development  of  the  human  mind  in  its 


38  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

first  effort  to  make  acquaintance  with  the  outward 
world. ' ' — FROEBEL. 

"  No  perfect  brain  ever  crowns  an  imperfectly  devel- 
oped body."— CLARK. 

Let  the  teacher  of  gymnastics  take  a  lesson  from  the 
few  words  of  this  great  teacher  of  children,  the  cham- 
pion of  the  kindergarten.  If  Froebel's  success  was  due 
to  his  knowledge  of  the  human  nature  of  the  child  and 
the  turning  of  his  work  into  play,  the  teacher  of  gym- 
nastics should  make  use  of  this  principle. 

"  Health  is  wealth."— EMERSON. 

"  Gymnastic  exercises  give  grace  and  beauty  to  the 
body,  and  good  training  to  the  mind."— DICKINSON. 

"The  cold,  formal,  precise,  unsympathetic  teacher 
should  never  set  foot  on  the  playground.  An  owl  fright- 
ens singing  birds.  The  only  teachers  who  succeed  well 
in  drilling  children  in  calisthenics,  gymnastics,  or  games, 
are  those  who  can  enter  into  the  spirit  of  girlhood  or 
boyhood. ' ' — SWETT. 

A  Quotation  from  a  Program  of  French  Instruction. 
4 'The  purpose  of  physical  education  is  not  merely  to 
furnish  the  body  and  strengthen  the  constitution  of  the 
child,  by  placing  him  in  the  most  favorable  hygienic 
conditions,  but  it  should  also  give  him,  at  an  early  age, 
qualities  of  deftness  and  agility  with  manual  dexterity, 
and  with  promptness  and  certainty  of  mind ;  which, 
valuable  for  every  one,  are  more  particularly  necessary 
for  pupils  in  the  common  schools,  the  most  of  whom 
are  destined  for  manual  occupations." 

"  Gymnastics  do  not  labor  merely  for  the  future,  by 
enlarging  and  strengthening  the  chest,  by  giving  supple- 


OPINIONS  ON  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION,  39 

ness  to  the  limbs,  and  by  contributing  to  the  health  of 
the  child.  Exercise  acts  immediately  upon  the  state  of 
the  body,  whose  forces  it  renews,  and  upon  the  nervous 
system,  which  it  tempers.  It  has  a  happy  effect  upon 
studies,  because  it  reestablishes  the  equilibrium  in  the 
organism,  and  at  the  same  time  gives  the  mind  more 
vigor  and  elasticity.  Gymnastics,  like  play,  take  the 
child  wearied,  enfeebled  by  study  and  cerebral  effort, 
and  restore  him  to  intellectual  labor  refreshed  and  ac- 
tive ;  but  it  will  do  this  on  one  condition — that  we  can 
never  pass  the  limit  beyond  which  fatigue  has  begun.  An 
excessive  exercise  of  the  body  makes  the  mind  inert,  while 
moderate  exercise  reanimates  and  refreshes." — Payne. 

Play.  Herbert  Spencer  says :  "  Happiness  is  the 
most  powerful  of  tonics.  By  accelerating  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood,  it  facilitates  the  performance  of  every 
function,  and  so  tends  alike  to  increase  health  when  it 
exists,  and  to  restore  it  when  it  is  lost.  Hence  the  essen- 
tial superiority  of  play  in  gymnastics. 

"  Play  in  the  open  air,  which  invites  to  jump,  to  run 
without  interruption,  to  shout  at  the  top  of  the  voice  ; 
which  causes  the  blood  to  circulate  vigorously  and  to 
give  color  to  the  cheeks — this  is  the  agent,  of  all  others, 
for  physical  development.  The  English  and  the  Amer- 
icans well  know  this,  and  we  have  play  as  a  national 
institution." 

K  Froebel  says:  "We  should  not  consider  play  as  a 
frivolous  thing.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  a  thing  of  pro- 
found signification.  By  means  of  play  the  child  expands 
in  joy  as  the  flower  expands  when  it  proceeds  from  the 
bud,  for  joy  is  the  soul  of  all  the  actions  of  that  age." 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   ETHICAL,   ELEMENT   IN   PHYSICAL  TRAINING. 

TEACHERS  of  gymnastics,  or  "  physical  educators,"  as 
they  are  sometimes  called,  do  not  hold  the  same  opinions 
regarding  the  results  of  their  training,  the  systems  they 
should  use,  or  the  methods  they  should  adopt.  There 
are  in  their  profession  several  "schools,"  each  of  which 
has  among  its  adherents  many  who  are  so  prejudiced  in 
favor  of  their  own  faction  that  they  do  not  carefully  in- 
vestigate the  principles  underlying  the  other  schools,  or 
make  an  honest  effort  to  be  fair  and  just  in  expressing 
their  opinions. 

There  is  jealousy  among  the  representatives  of  the 
various  gymnastic  systems  in  America,  but  it  can  be  said 
that  this  feeling  exists  in  all  professions  and  schools.  It 
therefore  does  not  follow  that,  because  we  are  gymnasts, 
we  need  the  great  ethical  element  of  charity  more  than 
others,  or  that  physical  education  fails  to  create  a  feeling 
of  brotherly  love.  Because  of  the  different  opinions  ex- 
pressed by  the  members  of  our  profession  we  are,  obvi- 
ously, not  unanimous  in  our  views,  and  as  we  do  not  yet 
agree  upon  the  same  results  accruing  from  each  sys- 
tem, it  may  be  well  to  present  the  objects  or  aims  of 
the  Swedish,  German,  Delsarte,  and  "so-called  "  Ameri- 
can systems  of  physical  training.  By  doing  this  the 
ethical  element  in  physical  training  can  be  determined 

40 


ETHICAL  ELEMENT  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING.         41 

as  well  by  the  authorities  on  moral  philosophy  as  by  the 
physical  educators.  Rational  physical  training  is  yet 
new  in  the  United  States,  and  we  are  not  sure  that  the 
results  of  which  we  speak  will  follow.  The  ethical  ele- 
ment has  been  discussed  but  little  in  our  schools.  In 
short,  ethics  is  not,  though  it  should  be,  taught,  in  our 
normal  training  schools  of  gymnastics. 
The  general  plan  of  this  chapter  is  this : 

1.  Ascertain  what  is  meant  by  the    terms  physical 
training ;    physical   education  ;    gymnastics ;   athletics, 
etc.  ;  also  the  objects  and  aims  of  the  several  systems  of 
gymnastics. 

2.  To  find,  if  possible,  what  is  meant  by  ethics,  and 
so  trace  the  relationship  between  the  two  subjects. 

Authorities  on  the  Swedish,  German,  Delsarte,  and 
American  methods  have  been  consulted,  so  that,  in 
speaking  of  the  aims  of  these  institutions,  the  author's 
statements  are  based  upon  their  expressed  opinions. 

DEFINITION. — Dr.  E.  M.  Hartwell,  the  American  au- 
thority on  physical  education,  in  his  "  Provisional 
Schematic  Study  of  Leading  Topics,"  says  : 

"  Physical  Education  as  an  Expression. 

"  A.    The  term  is  used  in  : 

"  (1)  A  vaguely  general,  uncritical,  and  popular 
sense,  when  it  means  too  much,  being  made  to  include 
matters  that  belong  to  personal  and  school  hygiene  ;  e. 
g. :  bathing,  diet,  dress,  seating  of  pupils,  ventilation. 

"  (2)  A  semi-general  sense,  signifying  exercise  for  the 
sake  of  health  or  recreation  or  the  prevention  of  mis- 
chief, when  it  means  too  little,  though  it  is  generally  so 
used  by  school  boards  and  educators. 


42  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

"  (3)  A  strictly  scientific  sense,  based  on  a  critical  con- 
sideration of  demonstrable  physiological  and  psycholog- 
ical effects  and  relations.  Its  general  and  special  scientific 
significations  should  be  distinguished  and  determined. 

"  B.  Synonymous  terms,  e.  g.:  physical  training ;  bodily 
exercise. 

"C.  Non-synonymous  terms,  e.  g.:  physical  culture; 
movement  cure  ;  society  gymnastics  ;  Delsarte  exercises. 

"  Physical  Education  as  a  Department  of  Science. 

"  A.  The  essential,  universal,  necessary  factor  in  all 
forms  of  physical  training  is  neuro-muscular  exercise.  It 
should  be  critically  considered  in  respect  to  : 

"  (a)  Its  nature  and  effects :  (1)  Bodily  ;  (2)  Mental. 

"  (6)  Its  aims,  which  may  be :  (1)  Recreative  ;  (2) 
Hygienic  ;  (3)  Educative  ;  (4)  Remedial. 

"  (c)  Its  results,  which  are  :  (1)  Anatomical ;  (2)  Phys- 
iological ;  (3)  Mental ;  (4)  Moral. 

"B.  As  a  branch  of  hygeine.  Physical  training  serves 
to  promote  the  normal  growth  and  development  of  : 

11  (1)  The  master  tissues  and  organs;  i.  e.,  muscles, 
nerves,  and  brain. 

"  (2)  The  purveyor  tissues  and  organs. 

"  (3)  The  scavenger  tissues  and  organs. 

"C.  As  a  pedagogic  discipline.  Physical  training 
helps  to  develop  will  and  intelligence,  *.  e.,  the  power  to 
know,  do,  endure,  and  forbear. 

"It  lies  at  the  basis  of  mental  and  moral  training ; 
hence  its  place  should  be  defined  and  its  value  deter- 
mined in  relation  to  the  ends  and  needs  of: 

"(1)  Somatic  or  general  bodily  training ;  e.  g.:  in  the 
matter  of  carriage,  walking,  running,  dancing. 


ETHICAL  ELEMENT  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING.         43 

"  (2)  Language  training;  e.  #..•  singing,  gesture,  speak- 
ing, for  general  and  special  ends. 

u  (3)  Manual  training;  e.  g.:  writing,  drawing,  and 
the  use  of  tools  for  educational  purposes. 

"(4)  Industrial  training;  for  the  professional  train- 
ing of  skilled  workmen. 

"(5)  Military  training;  e.  g.:  of  boys  playing  at 
soldiers,  of  militia,  soldiers,  and  sailors. 

"  (6)  Normal  training;  general  and  special,  in  each  of 
the  chief  departments  of  education,  viz.  :  in  elementary, 
secondary,  superior,  and  technical  education." 

Thus,  according  to  so  eminent  an  authority,  physical 
education  as  a  department  of  science  should  be  critically 
considered  in  respect  to  its  results,  which  are  physical, 
mental,  and  moral,  while  as  pedagogic  discipline  it  helps 
to  promote  will  and  intelligence. 

The  objects  of  the  Swedish  system,  as  given  by  Mr. 
Skarstrom  of  the  Chautauqua  School  of  Physical  Edu- 
cation, are  as  follows : 

"  The  aim  of  Swedish  gymnastics  is  to  harmoniously 
train  and  develop  all  parts  of  the  body,  so  as  to  make  it 
an  efficient  and  obedient  servant  or  tool  of  the  will,  and 
to  put  it  in  a  condition  most  favorable  for  the  duties  and 
activities  of  life.  In  other  words,  the  aim  is  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  individual  in  a  physical,  mental, 
and  moral  sense." 

1.  In  pedagogical  gymnastics,  the  training  and 
strengthening  of  the  respiratory  and  circulatory  func- 
tions is  the  first  consideration,  for  those  are  the  funda- 
mental functions  of  the  body,  and  on  them  depend  the 
welfare  and  efficiency  of  all  other  functions.  The  ex- 


44  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

ercises  used  are  such  as  will  train  the  strength  and 
efficiency  of  the  heart  and  lungs  and  assist  their 
action,  and  all  exercises  are  excluded  that  are  in  any 
way  detrimental  to  those  organs,  or  that  would  tend  to 
permanently  impede  their  activity.  This  we  might  call 
the  general  hygienic  object  of  pedagogical  gymnastics — 
improved  nutrition. 

2.  The  exercises  in  Swedish  pedagogical  gymnastics 
tend  to  correct  all  faulty  and  incorrect  positions  and 
carriage  of  the  body,  the  results  of  bad  habits  of  sitting, 
standing,  or  walking,  so  common  especially  during  the 
growing  age  and  in  school-desk  life,  and  to  encourage  a 
correct   and  healthy  growth  of  the  spine  and   thorax, 
and  a  good  position  and  carriage  of  the  shoulders  and 
head. 

3.  Besides  these  elements,  there  also  comes  in  a  purely 
educational  feature,  a  training  of  the  nervous  system ; 
for  the  exercises  used  are  such  as  to  demand  exactness 
of  muscular  coordination,  each  movement  and  position 
being  defined  in  every  detail ;  the  aim  being  to  so  train 
the  body  that  certain  groups  of  muscles,  in  response  to 
the  command  of  the  will,  shall  by  their  contraction  pro- 
duce a  certain  movement  and  nothing  else. 

"If  to  this  we  add  that  most  of  the  movements  and 
positions  are  taken  in  response  to  a  command  requiring 
an  instantaneous  execution  on  a  given  signal,  and  when 
the  exercises  are  serial  the  rhythm  is  kept  up  by  the  in- 
dividual's own  sense  of  rhythm,  it  must  follow  that 
alertness  of  perception,  quickness  of  action,  a  keen  pos- 
ture sense,  a  high  degree  of  coordination  and  power  of 
inhibition — in  a  word,  a  greater  volitional  control  and  a 


ETHICAL  ELEMENT  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING.         45 

feeling  of  being  master  of  one's  self,  will  be  the  result 
of  the  training.  In  how  far  this  will  affect  the  higher 
mental  qualities,  the  moral  strength,  and  the  general 
character  of  the  individual  has  not  been  ascertained." 

Again,  the  Swedish  system  works  for  purity  of  move- 
ment, also  for  exactness  of  coordination,  which  term 
they  sometimes  call  grace.  The  aesthetic  element  in  the 
Swedish  system  has  not  been  fully  developed.  The 
teachers  try  to  arouse  interest  in  the  work,  to  create 
pleasure,  and  to  exert  a  cheering  influence.  They  claim 
that  the  work  can  be  so  given  that  joy  and  exhilaration 
will  result.  These  same  effects  are  secured  partly  in 
the  German  and  American  schools  through  the  aid  of 
music.  The  Swedish  school  does  not  believe  in  this 
latter  plan. 

What  are  the  aims  of  the  German  system  of  gymnas- 
tics? This  question  is  well  answered  by  Guts  Muth  in 
his  "Gymnastics  for  the  Youth  of  the  Fatherland," 
when  he  says:  "Gymnastics  are  work  in  the  garb  of 
play.  Their  aim  is  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  between 
body  and  mind."  The  following  are  the  aims,  in  detail, 
as  given  by  the  same  author  : 

(a)  A  healthy  body,  lively  and  energetic. 

(6)  Manly  ruggedness,  gained  by  contact  with  and  ex- 
posure to  the  inclemencies  of  the  outer  world,  and  rea- 
sonable and  rational  training. 

(c)  Uniform  and  symmetrical  development  of  all  the 
parts. 

(d)  Subtlety  and  elasticity  of  body  and  limbs,  in  order 
to  cope  with  difficulties  and  dangers. 

(e)  Alertness  of  all  the  senses. 


46  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

(/)  Development  and  maintenance  of  a  manly  courage. 

Thus,  German  gymnastics  aim  to  educate  the  muscular 
and  nervous  systems,  the  mental  faculties,  the  different 
senses,  so  far  as  possible,  bringing  the  different  parts  of 
the  body  as  much  as  possible  under  the  influence  of  tjie 
will. 

As  for  the  ends  and  aims  sought,  they  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes  :  the  physical,  and  the  mental,  psycho- 
logical, and  ethical.  The  physical  aims  may  be  briefly 
summed  up  as  follows :  health,  strength  of  body  and 
limb,  uniform  and  symmetrical  build,  erectness  of  body 
and  ease  of  movement,  quickness  and  speed  of  action, 
exactness  and  precision,  power  of  endurance,  and  grace- 
ful and  easy  carriage.  The  mental,  psychological,  and 
ethical  aims  are :  discipline,  will  power,  manliness, 
courage,  self-reliance,  respect  for  self  and  others,  pres- 
ence of  mind,  sense  of  beauty  in  form  and  action,  quick- 
ness of  thought  and  perception,  and  last,  but  not  least, 
love  of  country — patriotism.* 

The  following  extract  gives  some  of  the  principles 
which  underlie  the  ideas  of  the  Delsarte  school :  "  In- 
tegrity of  mental  action  and  integrity  of  moral  purpose 
certainly  in  a  degree  depend  upon  integrity  of  muscle. 
This  is  shown  by  the  muscles  of  those  who  may  be  called 
mentally  and  morally  irresponsible.  The  muscles  of 
idiots  are  flaccid,  and  Charles  Dudley  Warner  tells  us 
how  an  habitual  lack  of  moral  integrity  is  registered  in 
the  weakened  tissues  of  the  body,  producing  what  is 
known  as  'criminal  muscle.'  Gymnastics  which  pro- 
mote health  of  body  and  muscular  development  are,  it  is 
*  Dr.  Schmidt. 


ETHICAL  ELEMENT  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING.          47 

believed,  indirect  agencies  toward  higher  ethical  con- 
ditions ;  while  gymnastics  psychologically  taught,  as  in 
'Americanized  Delsarte  Culture,'  are  direct  agencies  to- 
ward the  development  of  will,  judgment,  and  character. 
In  these  psychological  gymnastics  the  correspondence 
between  the  inner  states — mental  and  moral — and  the 
outer  physical  manifestations,  is  made  the  basis  of  the 
training."  * 

To  summarize,  we  find  that  the  objects  of  the  different 
systems  of  physical  training  are :  better  health,  better 
physique,  grace,  self-control,  self-reliance,  fortitude,  cour- 
age, power  of  endurance,  alertness  of  perception,  quick- 
ness of  action,  higher  degree  of  coordination,  muscular 
development,  will  power,  morals.  While  each  school 
does  not  describe  its  objects  in  the  same  words,  it  is  plain 
that  most  of  the  results  are  common  to  each,  in  theory 
if  not  in  practice.  There  is  no  American  system  of 
physical  education,  but  if  one  is  ever  made  it  will  be 
built  upon  sound  principles,  and  its  growth  will  be  in- 
fluenced by  the  experience  of  the  other  schools. 

We  are  not  now  ready  to  say  that  physical  training 
will  do  all  that  is  claimed  for  it,  nor  are  any  of  the  present 
systems  of  gymnastics  perfect  enough  to  produce  all  of 
the  results  mentioned.  Visitors  at  the  meetings  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Physical 
Education  comment  freely  on  the  fact  that  among  those 
present,  who  represent  gymnasia  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  there  are  comparatively  few  well-built  men  and 
women,  while  the  appearance  of  health  is  not  so  notice- 
able as  to  call  attention  to  any  great  difference  between 

*  Mrs.  Emily  M.  Bishop. 


48  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  G.YMNASTICS. 

this  gathering  of  the  disciples  of  health  and  that  of  the 
representatives  of  any  other  profession.  The  voices  of 
many  of  those  who  read  papers  or  spoke,  especially  of 
the  women,  are  noticeably  weak  ;  while  pale,  thin  faces, 
poor  chests,  and  unevenly  developed  bodies  are  not  un- 
common. These  meetings  are,  however,  gatherings  of 
hard-working,  hard-thinking,  enthusiastic,  earnest  men 
and  women,  who  come  together  to  learn  how  to  better 
care  for  the  bodies  of  their  pupils.  It  would  be  a  diffi- 
cult matter  to  say  to  which  school  this  or  that  person 
belongs,  and  yet  each  system  is  represented  by  delegates 
claiming  superior  advantages  for  its  methods,  but  not  in 
their  own  cases  showing  these  advantages.  It  cannot  be 
denied,  however,  that  the  delegates  showed  intelligence, 
kindness,  self-control,  self-reliance;  that  they  were  quick 
and  accurate  in  their  movements,  and  seemed  possessed 
of  more  than  ordinary  will  power.  The  ethical  part  of 
their  training,  or  the  moral  results,  were  more  evident 
than  the  purely  physical. 

It  is  not  always  necessary  that  our  men  and  women 
have  typical  physiques  to  possess  the  desired  ethical  ele- 
ments. The  question  for  discussion  is  not,  "Does  physi- 
cal training  produce  better  physiques,  greater  strength, 
and  a  healthier  appearance?"  but,  "Does  it  educate 
those  qualities  which  are  allied  to,  or  are  a  part 
of,  moral  philosophy?"  Physical  training  does  not 
do  for  those  who  are  in  constant  practice  all  that  we 
claim  for  it,  but  it  does  not  consequently  follow  that 
there  may  not  be  some  day  a  system  that  will.  The 
ethical  element  plays  a  far  more  important  part  in  our 
present  schools  of  gymnastics  than  is  credited  to  it  or 


ETHICAL,  ELEMENT  IN  PHYSICAL.  TRAINING.         49 

recognized  by  gymnastic  teachers.  We  are  apt  to  admit 
and  pass  over  too  quickly  the  moral  side  of  physical 
training,  and  give  our  attention  to  other  and  more  at- 
tractive phases — one  of  which  may  be  the  exercises  them- 
selves, which  are  too  often  considered  the  end,  instead  of 
the  means.  We  value  physical  education,  or,  for  that 
matter,  any  form  of  education,  for  what  it  does  ;  not  for 
what  is  said  of  it. 

In  what  way  does  physical  education  help  the  morals  ? 
In  which  of  the  two,  gymnastics  or  athletics,  do  we  find 
the  ethical  element  to  a  greater  degree,  and  what  are 
our  reasons  for  our  decisions  ?  If  the  physical  educators 
are  not  sure  of  the  results  of  their  efforts,  are  the  moral 
philosophers  sufficiently  agreed  upon  the  subject  of 
ethics  to  decide  the  question  for  us  if  we  present  our  side 
to  the  best  of  our  ability  ? 

The  object  of  life  is  the  complete  development  of  all 
the  moral  possibilities  of  man.  These  possibilities  are 
seven-fold.  Man  is  capable  of  development  physically, 
aesthetically,  intellectually,  socially,  politically,  relig- 
iously, and  morally.  A  man  who  neglects  one  or  more 
of  these  natures  is  one-sided,  and  the  man  who  devel 
ops  each  one  of  these  natures  nearest  to  its  utmost  pos- 
sibility of  development  comes  closer  to  attaining  the 
object  of  life. 

We  know  that  physical  training  develops  the  physical 
possibility  in  man.  Then,  if  we  accept  Prof.  B.  P. 
Bowne's  views,  the  first  link  between  ethics  and  phys- 
ical training  is  established.  In  every  system  of  phys- 
ical training  we  find  aesthetic  gymnastics.  We  may  in- 
fer, then,  that  the  second  link  exists.  All  gymnastic 


50  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

schools  admit  that  the  moral  training  is  helped  by  the 
physical.  If  this  is  true  we  may  look  for  still  another 
connection,  so  that  there  remains  the  social,  political, 
religious,  and  intellectual,  although  it  is  claimed  that 
the  intellect  is  developed  through  physical  training. 
Gymnastics— by  this  term  is  meant  the  work  in  light 
and  free  gymnastics  and  on  apparatus  like  bars,  ropes, 
etc.— develops  courage,  prompt  decision,  self-control, 
judgment,  self-reliance,  and  fortitude.  The  dangerous 
part  of  gymnastic  work  could  not  be  done  without  these 
virtues,  while  the  falls,  slips,  and  slight  accidents  teach 
fortitude. 

Football  cannot  be  played  by  cowards.  The  rough 
usage  that  a  young  man  receives  on  the  field  would  soon 
cause  him  to  withdraw  if  he  lacks,  what  is  very  essential 
in  this  popular  game,  "sand,"  which  is  another  name 
for  "  will."  It  is  only  necessary  to  examine  the  scarred 
bodies  of  our  football  players  to  know  that  they  must 
bear  pain  like  stoics.  The  game  develops  fortitude  and 
courage,  great  self-control,  quick  judgment,  prompt 
action,  and  endurance.  In  athletics  we  find  the  need  of 
endurance,  good  judgment,  and  prompt  action. 

In  all  gymnastics  and  athletics,  if  we  want  the  best 
results  we  must  obey  a  cardinal  rule,  which  is,  "  Be 
good."  The  strict  laws  of  training  in  athletics  and 
gymnastics  forbid  every  kind  of  vice.  They  demand 
the  very  best  care  of  the  body,  which  is  looked  upon  as 
a  clean,  well-tempered  instrument  governed  by  a  strong 
will.  No  form  of  immorality  will  be  tolerated,  while 
smoking,  or  even  carrying  a  pipe  in  the  mouth,  is  for- 
bidden. At  the  training  table  the  choicest  and  most 


ETHICAL  ELEMENT  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING.         51 

strengthening  food  is  served.  The  conversation  is  of  a 
healthful  kind.  Profanity  is  not  allowed. 

The  athletes  avoid  company  that  will  tempt  tlxem  to 
violate  these  moral  laws.  They  eat,  sleep,  and  live  by 
themselves.  They  admit  by  word  and  deed  that  their 
success  depends  upon  their  moral  habits  as  much  as  upon 
the  regular  physical  training.  It  is  true  that  for  some 
of  the  representatives  of  the  crews,  teams,  and  nines 
training  is  a  necessary  evil,  and  in  their  cases  there  is 
often  a  relapse  after  the  season  is  over,  but  this  does  not 
detract  from  the  weight  of  the  argument  that  to  succeed 
in  athletics  one  must  lead  a  strictly  moral  life. 

The  morale  of  a  team  depends,  to  a  great  extent,  upon 
the  captain,  but  he  is  generally  careful  about  the  ex- 
ample he  sets.  One  outside  of  college  and  preparatory 
school  life  knows  little  of  the  influence  which  the  cap- 
tain exerts  over  most  undergraduates.  They  seek  his 
society  and  while  with  him  obey  the  unwritten  laws. 
Many  of  the  associates  of  athletes  copy  their  ways  of 
living ;  their  habits  and  customs  are  discussed  and  imi- 
tated by  boys  in  preparatory  and  secondary  schools. 
It  is  true  that  the  betting  habit  is  an  evil,  but  this  is 
practiced  mostly  by  those  not  connected  with  athletics 
and  gymnastics. 

The  consensus  of  opinion  is  that  the  moral  tone  of  the 
athletes  is  above  that  of  other  undergraduates.  A  Yale 
man  remarks  that  the  habit  of  training  required  on  the 
baseball  field  clung  to  him  after  leaving  college,  so  that 
he  was  able  to  discontinue  smoking  by  its  aid.  An  Am- 
herst  man  states  that  of  the  fourteen  men  on  his  victori- 
ous football  team  of  1892,  eight  were  of  exceptionally  high 


52  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

moral  character.  In  the  1891  team  the  moral  tone  was 
even  higher.  He  also  insists  that  the  average  moral 
character  of  Amherst  athletes  is  above  that  of  the  under- 
graduates of  the  same  college.  A  Williams  athlete 
makes  a  similar  statement.  Cowan,  the  famous  Prince- 
ton football  player,  has  made  the  statement  that  the 
backbone  of  their  team  was  made  up  of  moral  men, 
while  the  reputation  of  Stagg,  Williams,  Heffelfinger, 
and  others  bears  testimony  to  these  statements.  This  is 
evidence  from  athletes  themselves. 

Our  best  amateur  and  professional  gymnasts  bear  wit- 
ness also  to  the  truth  of  these  statements.  The  pro- 
fessional gymnast  is  moral  in  many  cases  because  it  is  a 
means  to  an  end,  and  that  end  is — cash.  He  has  never 
heard  of  the  utilitarian  or  intuitional  schools  of  ethics. 
He  does  right  because  it  brings  him  the  greatest  happi- 
ness, namely,  a  big  salary.  Consequently  Bis  living  is 
right  because  it  brings  him  happiness,  according  to  the 
"  goods  ethics."  On  the  other  hand,  to  do  right  because 
it  is  right  is  nothing  to  him,  so  that  duty  ethics  would 
play  no  part  in  his  life.  We  have  found  that  the  young 
man  who  has  trained  his  body  either  by  athletics  or 
gymnastics  has  a  far  greater  control  over  himself  and  is 
less  liable  to  commit  immoral  acts  than  the  one  who  has 
not. 

This  is  true,  also,  with  schoolboys.  The  one  who  is 
trained  in  a  gymnasium  has  greater  strength  of  will  to 
overcome  evil  habits  than  the  one  who  has  not  been  so 
trained.  We  therefore  try  to  teach  small  boys  not  only 
to  care  for  their  bodies,  but  to  associate  with  health  and 
strength  moral  ideas.  The  immoral  small  boy  is  often 


ETHICAL  ELEMENT  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING.         53 

such  an  expert  prevaricator  that  he  can  deceive  the 
"  very  elect."  He  will  listen  to  advice,  but  the  notes  of 
warning  fall  on  dull  ears.  This  child  can  be  helped  in 
the  gymnasium  or  on  the  field  quicker  and  better  than 
in  any  other  way.  Bodily  action  is  desirable  in  his  case. 
Without  a  full,  strong,  natural  action  of  the  bodily 
functions,  which  is  good  for  him  morally  and  intellect- 
ually, both  the  moral  nature  and  the  mind  are  clogged. 
We  cannot  coerce  a  boy  into  being  good,  but  we  can  sur- 
round him  with  moral  influences.  Physical  training 
does  this.  Health  of  body  must  tend  to  promote  a 
healthful  mind  and  heart. 

"  The  character  of  a  man  is  determined  by  his  supreme 
choice."  He  has  a  strong  physical  character  when  he 
possesses  great  bodily  strength,  a  strong  moral  character 
when  he  has  the  power  of  doing  moral  acts.  What  con- 
stitutes moral  character  ?  There  are  two  elements :  first, 
a  strong  will,  or  the  power  of  decision  ;  second,  a  man 
must  desire  and  choose  the  good  in  preference  to  evil. 
Can  we  show  that  physical  training  develops  the  will, 
or  that  the  choice  of  good  is  influenced  by  gymnastics 
and  athletics  ?  Professor  James  of  Harvard  says :  "  The 
will  is  the  power  which  holds  the  idea  prominently  be- 
fore the  mind  until  it  results  in  action,"  or,  more  simply 
stated,  it  is  the  power  which  commands  action.  This  is 
shown  in  every  feat  of  strength  and  skill  in  gymnastics, 
and  there  is  little  doubt  in  my  mind  but  that  the  will  is 
strengthened  and  developed  by  physical  training.  Re- 
garding the  direction  in  which  this  force  is  exerted,  it  is 
known  that  the  force  may  be  exerted  either  in  a  moral  or 
an  immoral  direction,  and,  although  a  man  may  be  free 


64  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

to  choose  between  good  and  evil,  there  are  influences 
that  have  the  power  of  determining  his  course  of  action. 
These  influences  are  his  own  physical  condition  and  his 
environment.  A  sound  body  tends  to  make  a  man  good 
natured  and  philanthropic,  while  De  Quincey's  opium 
habit  is  a  classical  example  of  the  desperate  resorts  to 
•which  dyspepsia  can  drive  its  victims. 

Rev.  Dr.  Hunger  of  Yale  College  makes  this  statement : 
"  When  we  think,  it  is  not  alone  the  mind  that  thinks, 
it  is  the  whole  man,  and  the  process  begins  with  the 
body.  The  bodily  fiber  or  quality  reaches  to  the  thought. 
You  will  never  get  fine  thought  out  of  a  coarse  body. 
Nor  less  will  you  get  sound  thought  out  of  an  un- 
sound body.  The  bodily  condition  strikes  through  and 
shows  itself  in  the  quality  of  the  thought.  A  vast 
amount  of  the  poor,  illogical,  insipid,  morbid,  extrava- 
gant, pessimistic  thought  that  finds  its  way  into  books 
and  sermons  and  conversation  has  its  origin  in  poor 
bodies  and  bad  health.  The  body  lies  at  the  basis  of  suc- 
cess in  all  respects.  A  poor  body  means  a  poor  life  all 
the  way  up,  even  to  the  highest  stages  of  spiritual  life. 
Any  religious  experience  that  is  connected  with  a  weak 
or  diseased  body  is  to  be  regarded  with  suspicion.  There 
can  be  no  healthy  thought,  no  normal  feeling,  no  sound 
judgment,  no  vigorous  action,  except  in  connection  with 
a  sound  body.  Great  minds  are  often  shut  up  in  poor 
bodies — as  Pascal  and  Cowper,  and  Carlyle  and  Amiel — 
but  in  each  case  we  make  allowance  for  what  is  called 
the  personal  equation  ;  their  opinions  are  examined  in 
the  light  of  their  physical  weakness  or  disease  before 
they  are  trusted." 


ETHICAL  ELEMENT  IN  PHYSICAL  TRAINING.         55 

The  testimony  of  G.  Stanley  Hall  also  is  valuable.  He 
says : 

11 1  plead  strongly  for  physical  education  on  the 
grounds  of  good  morals.  I  believe  that  the  temptations 
that  assail  young  people  nowadays  are  to  quite  an  extent 
those  that  would  not  overcome  them  if  their  muscles 
were  strong.  They  are  of  that  insidious,  corroding,  un- 
dermining kind  that  are  somehow  or  other  so  prone  to 
<?reep  in  as  the  contractile  tissues  become  relaxed  and 
habitually  flabby." 

Finally,  then,  physical  education  develops  moral  char- 
acter, first,  by  lending  its  strength  to  the  will ;  secondly, 
by  directing  this  strength  to  moral  channels  through  the 
influence  of  a  man's  own  physical  nature,  through  his 
associates  and  the  purity  of  the  scenes  of  his  work.  The 
minister  of  the  gospel  should  know  more*  of  physical 
training  when  teaching  ethics  ;  the  public  school-teacher 
should  know  more  of  both  physical  training  and  ethics  ; 
while  the  teacher  of  gymnastics  should  know  more  of 
ethics. 

"  The  laws  of  health  are  the  laws  of  God,  and  are  as 
binding  as  the  Decalogue." — PARKER. 

"  The  physiology  is  educating  men  for  manhood  and 
women  for  womanhood,  both  for  humanity.  In  this 
lies  the  hope  of  the  race." — DR.  CLARK. 

"Get  health,  for  sickness  is  a  cannibal  which  eats  up 
all  the  life  and  youth  it  can  lay  hold  of,  and  so  absorbs 
its  own  sons  and  daughters."— EMERSON. 

"  At  college  I  was  taught  the  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  as  if  their  keeping  in  their  orbits  depended  upon 
my  knowing  them,  while  I  was  in  profound  ignorance 


66  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

of  the  laws  of  health  of  my  own  body.  The  rest  of  my 
life  was,  in  consequence,  one  long  battle  with  exhausted 
energies."— HORACE  MANN. 

F.  Marion,  in  speaking  on  physical  education,  says  i 
"  Physical  perfection  serves  to  assure  moral  perfection. 
There  is  nothing  more  tyrannical  than  enfeebled  organ- 
ism. Nothing  sooner  paralyzes  the  free  activity  of  the 
reason,  the  flight  of  the  imagination,  and  the  exercise 
of  reflection,  nothing  sooner  dries  up  all  the  sources  of 
thought,  than  a  sickly  body,  whose  functions  languish, 
and  for  which  every  effort  is  a  cause  of  suffering.  Then 
have  no  scruples,  and  if  you  would  form  a  soul  which  is 
to  have  ample  development,  a  man  of  generous  and  in- 
trepid will,  a  workman  capable  of  great  undertakings 
and  arduous  labors,  first,  and  above  all,  secure  a  vigorous 
organism,  of  powerful  resistance,  and  muscles  of  steel." 

"Aristotle  thought  that  the  highest  object  of  man  is 
the  attainment  of  happiness,  and  the  highest  happiness 
of  man  is  to  be  reached  by  perfect  virtue.  Neither  per- 
fect happiness  nor  perfect  virtue  can  be  had  without  per- 
fect health.  The  end  of  life,  and  therefore  of  education, 
is  the  attainment  at  once  of  intellectual,  moral,  and 
physical  virtue.  Boys  know  well  that  games  conduce, 
not  merely  to  the  physical  but  to  moral  health — that  in 
the  ball-field  boys  acquire  virtues  that  no  books  can  give 
them,  such  as  control  of  temper,  self-restraint,  fairness, 
honor,  unenvious  approbation  of  another's  success,  and 
all  that  give  and  take  life  which  stands  a  man  in  such 
good  stead  when  he  goes  forth  into  the  world  and  with- 
out which,  indeed,  success  is  always  maimed  and 
partial." — CHARLES  KINGSL.EY. 


CHAPTER  IY. 

THE  GYMNASTIC  DAY'S  ORDER. 

THE  object  of  gymnastics  in  our  schools  is  primarily  a 
hygienic  one :  it  is  an  effort  to  maintain  the  health  of 
the  pupils  at  the  highest  possible  level,  in  spite  of  the 
evil  influences  of  a  too  one-sided  mental  training  coupled 
with  the  sedentary  habits  which  usually  accompany  a 
studious  life. 

If  we  exclude  from  the  gymnastic  exercises  not  only 
those  forbidden  by  the  anatomico-mechanical  structure 
of  the  normal  body,  but  also  such  as  have  a  tendency  to 
induce  injurious  positions  and  make  them  permanent, 
we  may  ascribe  a  certain  hygienic  value  to  every  other 
kind  of  muscular  activity  within  physiological  limits,  on 
account  of  its  stimulating  effect  on  the  general  nutrition. 
But  the  different  forms  of  bodily  movements,  of  course, 
do  not  react  upon  the  body  in  the  same  manner  ;  some 
have  a  decidedly  local  effect,  promoting  nutrition  in  the 
special  parts  directly  affected  by  them,  while  the  local 
result  of  some  other  forms  is  insignificant  when  com- 
pared to  the  general  improvement  of  the  whole  system, 
which  accrues  from  them  ;  and  among  these  latter  some 
act  principally  through  increased  general  circulation, 
some  principally  by  improving  the  respiration,  some 
principally  by  regulating  the  nutrition,  and  so  on. 

Hence,  the  gymnastic  movements  may,  according  to 

57 


58  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

their  physiological  effect,  be  classified  into  groups  or 
natural  families,  into  each  of  which  are  brought  together 
those  movements  which  in  all  main  features  resemble 
each  other,  but  vary  in  minor  details.  When  certain 
effects  of  gymnastics  are  found  desirable,  it  is  then  evi- 
dent that  not  all  possible  movements  are  to  be  recom- 
mended, nor  an  indiscriminate,  haphazard  choice  among 
them  ;  but  only  such,  the  effects  of  which  are  known  to 
tend  strongly  in  the  desired  direction.  This  self-evident 
truth,  which  must  be  one  of  the  cornerstones  of  all  gym- 
nastic work,  may  be  called  the  principle  of  gymnastic 
selection. 

On  the  other  hand,  even  if  one  organ  or  part  of  the 
body,  or  a  few  organs  or  parts  of  the  body,  be  more  in 
need  of  the  health  and  strength-giving,  or  the  corrective 
influence  of  muscular  work,  the  body  as  a  whole  always 
suffers,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  by  infirmity  or  de- 
terioration in  any  particular  part,  and  as  a  consequence 
no  important  family  of  movements  can  be  altogether 
overlooked,  when  we  make  up  a  schedule  of  the  gym- 
nastics for  a  certain  individual  or  a  certain  class  of  indi- 
viduals, even  if  movements  for  specific  purposes  in  cer- 
tain cases  must  have  a  prominent  place.  The  whole 
body,  the  whole  man,  must  have  proper  attention.  The 
human  being  is  not  a  machine  which  will  be  kept  in  the 
best  running  condition  by  the  occasional  repair  of  cer- 
tain independent  parts,  which  together  constitute  the 
whole,  and  of  which  some  may  be  in  need  of  special  at- 
tention ;  but  the  work  must  be  so  arranged  that  the 
whole  is  not  forgotten  for  the  sake  of  its  parts.  This  is 
the  principle  of  gymnastic  totality. 


THE  GYMNASTIC  DAY'S 

Closely  connected  with  this  is  the  third  principle  un- 
derlying rational  gymnastics,  that  of  gymnastic  unity, 
which  means  that  the  effects  of  the  different  movements 
used  must  be  considered  not  only  with  regard  to  them- 
selves, but  also  with  regard  to  all  the  other  movements 
employed,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  effect  of  the  one 
does  not  nullify  or  unduly  multiply  that  of  any  other. 
Only  by  such  selection  and  arrangement  may  we  hope 
to  gain  the  most  favorable  results  from  our  work  within 
the  shortest  possible  time. 

A  list  of  movements,  selected  and  arranged  on  these 
principles,  and  intended  to  constitute  the  gymnastic 
work  during  each  day  of  a  shorter  or  longer  period  of 
time,  until  the  conditions  of  the  pupils  so  change  with 
regard  to  health,  strength r;€ontrol  of  the  body,  etc.,  as 
to  warrant  a  corresponding  change  in  the  movements 
used,  has  been  called  a  gymnastic  day's  order. 

From  what  has  already  been  said,  it  is  apparent  that  the 
day's  order  is  very  variable,  according  to  the  desired  re- 
sults and  the  conditions  under  which  the  work  is  to  be 
given.  Its  character  depends  on  the  most  varied  circum- 
stances ;  it  is  influenced  by  the  general  health,  age,  sex, 
strength,  and  other  qualities  of  the  pupils,  by  the  time 
allotted  to  the  work,  by  the  nature  of  the  place  where 
the  exercises  are  given,  whether  in  the  schoolroom,  in  a 
regularly  appointed  gymnasium,  on  a  suitable  ground  in 
the  open  air.  The  instructor  must,  in  order  to  be  suc- 
cessful and  to  do  justice  to  his  pupils,  so  vary  his  sched- 
ules as  to  bring  them  in  accord  with  these  and  other  con- 
ditions. There  are  consequently  no  fixed  and  ironclad 
rules  with  regard  to  the  composition  of  the  day's  order. 


60  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

But  experience  shows  that  in  all  such  institutions  where 
it  is  especially  desirable  to  benefit  from  gymnastics,  the 
conditions  present  important  similarities,  which  make 
it  possible  to  recommend  a  certain  type  of  day's  order, 
which  can  and  ought  to  be  more  or  less  strictly  adhered 
to,  but  which  need  not,  and  must  not,  be  slavishly  fol- 
lowed. The  indications  in  the  different  cases  decide  the 
necessary  deviations  from  it. 

Thus,  every  day's  order  is  properly  prefaced  by  such 
preparations  as  will  tend  to  bring  order  out  of  chaos, 
to  put  the  class  under  the  control  of  the  instructor  and 
enable  him  without  loss  of  time,  rapidly,  and  with  ease 
to  move  the  whole  class  or  its  component  parts,  divi- 
sions, or  individuals,  to  different  places,  or  into  different 
positions,  in  them  or  from  them  to  execute  the  necessary 
movements.  These  movements,  which  are  not  gymnas- 
tic in  the  same  hygienic  sense  as  those  which  follow,  all 
of  which  have  a  definite  hygienic  purpose,  have  received 
the  common  name,  order  movements,  and  consist  mainly 
of  taking  the  fundamental  positions,  alignments,  spread- 
ing and  bringing  the  class  together  into  different  forma- 
tions, and  similar  evolutions,  often  borrowed  from  mili- 
tary tactics.  Besides  the  object  just  mentioned,  they 
are  also  intended  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  pupils 
from  the  usual  mental  work  to  work  of  a  totally  differ- 
ent nature,  to  awake  them  and  put  physical  life  into 
them.  They  are,  therefore,  quick  and  sharp,  requiring 
a  minimum  of  muscular  strength. 

When  their  object  is  gained,  the  work  is  introduced 
by  mild  movements  to  increase  the  arterial  afflux  to  the 
muscles,  thus  relieving  the  cerebro-spinal  system  from 


THE  GYMNASTIC  DAY'S  ORDER.  61 

the  congestive  tendency  created  by  mental  work  as- 
sisted by  more  or  less  cramped  postures.  If  the  allotted 
time  permits  it,  these  introductory  movements  consist  of 
a  series  of  free  standing  movements,  embracing  simple 
forms  from  several  of  the  natural  families — head,  arm, 
trunk,  and  leg  movements — among  which  the  leg  move- 
ments are  predominant,  and  are  used  alone,  if  the  time 
be  short,  This  predominance  of  the  leg  movements  is 
based  upon  the  fact  that  they  bring  greater  masses  of 
muscles  into  play  than  any  other  form  of  mild  move- 
ments, and  as  a  result  their  "  derivative  "  influence  is 
very  marked.  They  are  also  used  frequently  in  our 
daily  life,  or  closely  related  to  forms  which  are,  and  the 
necessary  amount  of  cerebration  is  therefore  compara- 
tively small ;  which  means,  with  regard  to  their  regu- 
lative influence  upon  the  circulation,  that  no  great 
counteracting  power  is  brought  to  bear  against  their  de- 
rivative effect. 

Next  follow  tense-bendings,  the  type  of  which  is  rec- 
ognized by  an  evenly  distributed,  gentle  backward  curve 
of  the  whole  body  from  the  feet  to  the  hands,  which  are 
extended  above  the  head  grasping  a  firm  support  behind, 
upon  whicl),  by  the  full  extension  of  the  arms,  they  exe- 
cute a  push  which  brings  a  tension  upon  the  whole  front 
aspect  of  the  body.  The  effect  of  this  group  is  far-reach- 
ing :  the  antero-posterior  curve  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
vertebral  column,  generally  exaggerated  into  deformity 
by  the  usual  sitting  posture,  is  flattened,  which  causes 
the  ribs  to  be  spread  out  in  front  in  a  fan  shape — an  ef- 
fect which  is  to  some  extent  increased  by  the  traction 
exerted  upon  the  sternum  and  the  ribs  by  the  arms 


62  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

through  the  pectorals ;  the  inter  vertebral  disks,  upon 
the  front  part  of  which  the  usual  posture  brings  a 
strong  pressure  supplemented  by  long-sustained  traction 
on  the  posterior  ligaments,  are  relieved  from  this 
pressure,  and  in  its  place  a  corresponding  compres- 
sion of  their  hindmost  parts  and  an  extension  of  the 
anterior  ligaments  take  place.  This  passive  exten- 
sion concerns,  however,  not  only  the  anterior  vertebral 
ligaments  proper,  but  reaches  also  other  ligaments  and 
muscles,  which  in  a  contracted  state  serve  as  ligaments ; 
again,  the  extension  of  these  muscles,  for  instance,  the 
intercostal  and  abdominal  ones,  which  in  itself  is  a 
means  to  increase  their  extensibility,  and  thus  their 
proper  functional  ability,  causes  also  an  equalization  of 
the  circulation  by  assisting  the  venous  reflux  from  them ; 
this  effect  is  still  more  emphasized  both  by  the  thoracic 
aspiration  which  results  from  the  position,  and  by  the 
mechanical  raising  of  the  diaphragm  and  abdominal 
viscera,  which  are  so  often  congested  or  suffer  from  slug- 
gish circulation  on  account  of  being  pressed  down  into 
or  toward  the  pelvis.  These  are  only  a  few  points.  It 
would  take  a  great  deal  too  much  space  to  enumerate  all 
the  modes  in  which  the  tense-bendings  act  beneficially. 
We  now  bring  in  one  or  more  heave-movements,  i.  e.t 
such  in  which  the  body  is  wholly  or  partly  suspended 
by  means  of  the  hands.  If  the  tense-bendings  are  looked 
upon  as  corrective  exercises  for  the  thorax  par  excellence, 
the  heave-movements  may  be  spoken  of  as  educative. 
The  passive  expansion  which  the  former  cause  we  find 
also  in  this  group,  though  in  a  far  milder  degree  ;  but  to 
this  is  added  an  active  element  by  which  the  thoracic 


THE  GYMNASTIC  DAY'S  ORDER.  63 

cage  is  lifted  by  the  action  of  its  own  muscles,  which 
thereby  are  to  be  educated  to  maintain  the  correct  pos- 
ture. The  pectorals,  for  instance,  contract  powerfully 
toward  their  humeral  attachments,  which  are  made 
fixed  by  the  posture,  and  actively  lift  the  sternum  and 
ribs.  The  increased  strength  in  these  muscles,  which 
results  from  a  judiciously  progressive  use  of  this  class  of 
movements,  is  of  course  explained  by  the  increased 
arterial  afflux,  while  the  sedative  influence  of  the  move- 
ments, which  is  frequently  noticed,  probably  is  due  to 
the  increased  venous  reflux  from  the  head  on  account  of 
the  thoracic  aspiration,  and  from  the  spine  because  of  its 
passive  extension. 

The  heave-movements  require  quite  a  good  deal  of 
muscular  strength,  whether  in  their  purest  form,  such 
as  heaving  and  sinking  of  the  body  by  means  of  the 
arms,  or  in  more  mixed  types,  such  as  climbing.  Some 
muscular  fatigue  will  therefore  result,  and  we  find  a 
necessity  to  introduce  after  them  such  movements  as 
require  comparatively  little  strength.  Now  our  pupils 
usually  have  a  poor  general  carriage  of  their  bodies.  No 
movements  are  better  apt  to  improve  them  in  this  respect 
than  the  so-called  balancing  movements,  which  train  the 
powers  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  in  more  or  less  diffi- 
cult postures,  generally  upon  a  small  base  of  support. 
But  these  are  also  movements  which  require  only  little 
muscular  strength,  and  they  are  therefore  introduced 
here  as  a  relief  from  the  previous  groups.  While  exe- 
cuting these  movements,  the  pupils  may  rest.  Besides, 
they  have  a  tendency  to  moderate  the  accelerated  heart 
action.  Their  principal  effect  is  the  education  of  the 


64  METHODS  OF   TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

power  of  coordination,  teaching  the  pupils  to  send  stim- 
uli of  correct  strength  to  the  correct  muscles.  The  longi- 
tudinal muscles  running  from  vertebra  to  vertebra  and 
principally  concerned  in  keeping  this  movable  pillar  of 
segments  in  the  correct  position  to  maintain  its  equi- 
librium, must  be  properly  coordinated  to  fill  their  office, 
for  which  a  well-adjusted  cerebration  is  necessary.  And 
not  only  they,  but  the  other  muscles  of  the  trunk  and 
those  of  the  legs  also  are  implicated  in  the  movements, 
and  their  contractions  must  be  finely  adjusted.  It  is 
just  at  this  place  in  the  day's  order  that  such  a  work  may 
be  best  undertaken,  because  the  previous  exercises  have, 
as  has  already  been  stated,  relieved  the  brain  of  the  im- 
pure blood  which  has  collected  there  during  the  previous 
mental  work,  while  the  muscular  work  has  not  been  of 
such  intensity  as  to  cause  fatigue  of  the  motor  cells  or  to 
saturate  the  general  circulation  with  fatigue  stuffs. 

Now  commences  a  part  which  is  intended  mainly  to 
make  permanent  the  undoing  of  the  evils  of  cramped 
postures  and  intellectual  work.  The  muscles  are  to  be 
used  in  such  movements  as  will  strengthen  them  enough 
to  maintain  the  good  posture  gained  and  by  their  strength 
improve  the  great  vital  functions  of  the  circulatory, 
respiratory,  and  digestive  organs.  No  muscular  work  is 
undertaken  for  its  immediate  effect  upon  the  muscles 
themselves,  if  it  is  not  found,  by  looking  behind  this 
effect,  that  indirectly  these  vital  functions  are  materially 
benefited.  Thus  follow  first  movements  for  the  back  of 
the  trunk,  to  increase  the  strength  of  all  the  muscles  of 
the  back,  principally  in  the  thoracic  region,  to  enable 
them  to  carry  the  shoulders  and  the  chest  in  such  a  way 


THE  GYMNASTIC  DAY'S  ORDER.  66 

as  to  give  the  necessary  space  for  heart  and  lungs  ;  then 
movements  for  the  front  side,  principally  to  strengthen 
the  abdominal  walls,  creating  a  firmer  support  for  the 
abdominal  viscera  and  making  of  them,  so  to  speak,  a 
natural  apparatus  for  massage  of  these  same  viscera. 
Their  increased  strength  and  improved  ability  to  func- 
tion will  cause  more  thoroughgoing  kneading  of  the  ab- 
dominal contents,  which,  in  its  turn,  induces  increased 
osmosis  from  the  intestines,  increased  secretion  from 
their  glands,  more  rapid  circulation,  and  a  more  effective 
peristalsis.  The  main  object  of  the  movements  for  the 
sides  is  of  a  similar  nature,  though  different  groups  of 
muscles  are  brought  to  con  traction  or  extension  by  them, 
and  thus  different  regions  may  be  specially  affected. 
They  will  also  increase  the  movability  of  the  vertebrae 
upon  each  other,  and  affect  both  costal  and  diaphragmatic 
respiration  ;  besides  which  they,  according  to  some  au- 
thorities, act  as  stimulants  for  the  spinal  nerves  at  their 
exit  from  the  intervertebral  foramina— a  statement  which 
appears  to  be  based  more  on  theoretical  than  experi- 
mental grounds,  and  therefore  is  not  absolutely  sure, 
though  it  appears  probable. 

If  the  allotted  time  is  ample,  it  would  be  well  to  give 
another  series  of  movements  from  these  last  families,  of 
course  of  a  different  kind,  but  if  so  they  ought  to  be 
separated  from  the  preceding  series  by  some  movements 
which  can  give  relief  to  the  parts  which  have  been  in 
activity.  For  this  purpose  rhythmical  leg  movements, 
such  as  marches  and  military  evolutions,  are  commonly 
employed.  When  the  desired  relief  has  been  gained, 
these  may  be  changed  into  the  form  of  running,  for  the 


66  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

sake  of  training  and  strengthening  the  heart  and  lungs. 
If  running  is  employed  in  this  place  it  will,  of  course,  be 
necessary  to  quiet  the  heart  action  and  relieve  the  respi- 
ration, if  it  has  become  labored,  before  passing  over  to 
the  next  series  of  trunk  movements. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  one  series  of  trunk  movements 
must  suffice,  these  marches  will  serve  to  give  ease  from 
the  previous  work,  while  the  running  forms  a  part  of  the 
precipitant  movements  proper.  Under  this  term  we  em- 
brace all  such  movements  as  demand  a  great  expenditure 
of  force  in  a  short  period  of  time,  and  which  therefore 
are  executed  by  great  masses  of  muscles.  Besides  the 
running  already  mentioned,  the  different  forms  of  jump- 
ing and  vaulting  are  of  this  nature.  Their  physiological 
effect  is  the  stimulation  and  strengthening  of  the  circu- 
latory and  respiratory  functions,  which  are  charged  with 
removing  the  great  amount  of  waste  materials  formed  in 
these  movements  and  supplying  the  muscles  with  new 
nutrition.  With  these  movements,  the  effect  of  which 
is  the  most  general  one  of  any  of  the  groups  spoken  of, 
the  day's  order  has  reached  its  highest  point  of  intensity, 
its  climax,  and  it  now  rapidly  descends  toward  complete 
rest  through  such  movements  as  will  quiet  the  heart- 
beat, accelerate  the  excretion  of  the  results  of  the  chemi- 
cal combustions,  and  cool  the  body  by  increasing  the 
secretion  of  the  water  from  the  lungs.  It  is  the  respira- 
tory exercises  which  are  most  suitable  for  this  purpose, 
and  which  should  always  end  the  day's  work,  as  well  as 
be  employed  whenever  needed  in  the  day's  order ;  but 
they  may  well  be  preceded  by  slow  leg  movements  on  ac- 
count of  their  derivative  influence,  and  especially  may 


THE  GYMNASTIC  DAY'S  ORDER.  67 

these  be  very  profitably  employed  in  the  form  of  balanc- 
ing movements  after  such  precipitant  movements  as 
jumping  and  vaulting,  which  are  executed  by  one  at 
the  time,  and  after  which  each  pupil  may  take  such  a 
movement  by  walking  on  the  balancing  beam  in  return- 
ing to  his  place  in  the  rank. 

In  observing  the  list  which  is  here  recommended  as  a 
type  suitable  in  a  majority  of  cases,  it  will  be  found  that 
there  is  a  steady  progression  from  milder  to  stronger 
movements  within  the  day's  order.  But  a  steady  pro- 
gression must  also  take  place  from  day  to  day  or  from 
week  to  week,  and  in  no  family  must  the  progression  ad- 
vance to  any  extent  without  a  corresponding  progression 
within  the  other  families,  as  this  would  be  contrary  to 
the  rules  of  gymnastic  totality  and  unity. 

It  is  the  hygienic  basis  of  the  day's  order  which  we 
have  endeavored  briefly  to  sketch,  because  of  the  pre- 
eminent importance  of  gymnastics  as  a  hygienic  agent. 
So  far  as  we  know,  the  purely  educational  or  psychologi- 
cal aims  which  may  be  reached  by  gymnastics  are  also 
best  furthered  by  the  same  sequence  and  arrangement, 
though  we  cannot  affirm  this  as  positively  as  the  hygienic 
benefits  of  the  day's  order,  because  of  the  few  data  col- 
lected by  psychologists. 


CHAPTEE   Y. 

EFFECT  OF  CERTAIN  EXERCISES  UPON  THE  PULSE-RATE. 

OBJECT.  The  object  of  this  chapter  is,  first,  to  present 
the  results  of  observations,  showing  the  effect  of  certain 
movements  of  the  body  on  the  action  of  the  heart  after 
jumping  and  running  exercises.  Second,  to  discuss 
briefly  the  reasons  for  placing  precipitant,  slow  leg,  and 
breathing  exercises  in  the  Swedish  day's  order  where 
they  are.  Third,  to  bring  up  for  discussion  a  few  ques- 
tions pertinent  to  the  subject. 

Why  the  Tests  were  made.  Some  years  ago  my  atten- 
tion was  called  to  the  reason  for  placing  the  jump- 
ing exercises  after  the  motions  for  the  "abdomen,  fore 
part  of  the  body,  and  alternate  side  movements."  Baron 
Posse,  in  his  "  Chief  Characteristics  of  the  Swedish 
System,"  places  the  slow  leg  exercises  before  the  jump,  fol- 
lowing it  with  breathing  exercises.  Jakob  Bolin  places 
precipitant  work,  his  term  for  running  and  jumping, 
after  the  abdominal  movements.  The  quieting  of  the 
action  of  the  heart  after  violent  exercises  by  slow  leg 
motion  and  rhythmic  breathing  exercises  seemed  to  be 
such  a  cardinal  point  in  the  Ling  system,  that  I  adopted 
the  method  and  am  still  using  it.  As  there  is  a  unanim- 
ity of  opinion  among  the  advocates  of  the  Ling  sys- 
tem day's  order,  relative  to  the  placing  of  such  exercises, 
allow  me  to  quote  from  one  of  the  authorities,  which 


EFFECT  OF  CERTAIN  EXERCISES.  69 

quotation  will  agree  in  the  main  with  the  opinions  ex- 
pressed by  other  leaders.  "The  movements  mentioned 
above,  namely  for  the  front,  sides  of  the  waist,  and  ab- 
domen, following  each  other  in  the  order  named,  are 
performed  with  gradually  increasing  force.  By  these 
movements  the  system  is  prepared  for  the  next  follow- 
ing. These  are  the  more  vigorous  exercises  of  running 
and  jumping.  With  these  movements  the  culmination 
of  the  day's  order  is  reached,  after  which  the  accelerated 
action  of  the  heart  must  be  normalized,  and  the  body 
prepared  for  rest.  This  is  accomplished  by  slow,  meas- 
ured, leg  movements,  accompanied  by  deep  rhythmic 
breathing  movements."  * 

It  has  often  occurred  to  me  that  this  arrangement  of 
the  approach  to  and  departure  from  the  precipitant  work 
was  like  Mark  Twain's  description  of  the  ascent  of  Mt. 
Vesuvius — long,  gradual,  moderate  to  the  top  ;  short  and 
quick  to  the  base.  The  first  question,  therefore,  presents 
itself :  If  it  is  necessary  to  go  through  eight  series  of 
movements  to  prepare  the  heart  for  the  strain  of  the 
jumping  exercises,  why  are  only  two  groups  given  to 
normalize  its  action  ?  What  objection  can  there  be  in 
the  first  series  of  these  exercises  arranged  according  to 
the  Swedish  day's  order,  to  placing  the  running  next  to 
the  abdominal  work,  when  they  can  be  so  given  in  a 
second  series,  while  in  the  more  advanced  arrangements 
they  are  sometimes  placed  in  the  middle  of  a  group? 
These  questions  are  asked  because  it  is  not  clear  to  many 
teachers  why  this  arrangement  is  so  strictly  adhered  to. 
Another  question  arises  :  If  the  exercises  involve  a  high 

*  Dr.  Enebuske. 


70  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

degree  of  heart  exertion,  but  never  exceed  the  danger 
limit,  why  are  so  few  movements  given  to  quiet  the 
action  of  the  heart?  Why  not  give  "in  place  rest,"  as 
well  as  slow  leg  exercises?  If  the  precipitant  work 
quickens  the  action  of  the  heart  and  lungs,  should  we 
for  the  time  attempt  to  normalize  them?  Is  it  not 
nature's  method  of  meeting  the  condition  ?  In  any  case 
of  exertion  would  not  rest  be  as  judicious  as  a  continu- 
ation of  exercise  ?  Is  not  the  moment  of  complete  re- 
laxation between  each  of  the  movements  of  as  much 
value  in  quieting  the  action  of  the  heart  as  the  exercises 
which  follow  ? 

The  work  being  done  at  Yale  University  by  Dr.  Scrip- 
ture, and  at  Harvard  by  Dr.  Fitz,  cannot  but  be  of  great 
service  to  the  cause  of  physical  education,  while  so  high 
an  authority  as  Dr.  Ladd  makes  the  statement  that  the 
relation  between  psychology  and  gymnastics  is  an  inti- 
mate one.  The  teacher,  whose  duty  it  is  to  mold  the 
bodies  of  men,  and  so  the  mind  and  feelings,  should  un- 
derstand the  elements  of  psychology,  if,  as  has  been 
stated,  psychology  is  the  mother  of  the  science  of  edu- 
cation. In  this  research  work  I  did  not  go  out  of  my 
way  to  attack  any  system,  nor  to  harbor  any  prejudice, 
but  if  a  system  is  rational,  and  there  is  a  scientific  reason 
for  everything  adopted,  then  let  it  stand  the  test  of  in- 
vestigation. 

What  the  Tests  were :  With  the  aid  of  the  kymo- 
graph, sphygmograph,  time  indicator,  and  smoked  drum, 
these  tests  were  made,  with  the  assistance  of  members  of 
the  senior  and  junior  classes  of  the  Anderson  Normal 
School  of  Gymnastics.  Dr.  Seaver  took  a  number  of  the 


EFFECT  OF  CERTAIN  EXERCISES.  71 

readings.  Part  of  the  tests  were  made  with  a  Dudgeon 
sphygmograph.  It  is  impossible  to  present  all  of  the  trac- 
ings, but  attention  is  called  to  a  few  of  the  outlines,  which 
are  very  similer  to  others  secured  by  the  same  tests.  Al- 
though the  figures  given  are  taken  from  one  hundred 
and  twenty  persons,  we  have  kept  a  record  of  a  very 
much  larger  number,  and  it  is  found  that  when  we  in- 
crease the  numbers  there  is  not  a  great  difference  in  the 
results.  Of  the  one  hundred  and  twenty,  forty  were  ex- 
perimented upon  to  show  the  effect  of  slow  leg  exercises 
and  rhythmic  breathing  upon  the  action  of  the  heart 
after  running ;  forty  more  tried  standing  in  "  place  rest " 
after  the  run,  and  the  last  forty  took  abdominal  move- 
ments. In  every  case  the  normal  pulse  was  read  for 
thirty  seconds.  This  was  followed  immediately  by  run- 
ning in  place,  the  person  taking  about  seventy-five  steps 
in  half  a  minute,  after  which  the  pulse-rate  was  recorded 
for  a  period  of  thirty  seconds,  then  followed  four  slow- 
stepping  movements  with  each  foot,  and  arm  raising 
shoulder  high  to  the  side,  accompanied  by  inspiration 
and  lowered  with  expiration.  The  breathing  movements 
were  given  four  times,  after  which  the  pulse  was  read  for 
the  last  time.  We  must  bear  in  mind  that  during  the 
half  minute  after  the  running  exercise,  while  the  pulse 
was  being  read,  there  was  a  period  of  rest;  this  might  cor- 
respond to  the  moment  of  complete  relaxation  mentioned 
before.  The  second  series  of  tests  was  given  in  much  the 
same  way,  with  this  exception,  that  in  place  of  the  slow 
leg  and  breathing  exercises,  the  pupil  was  required  to 
hold  the  position  of  place  rest  thirty  seconds,  and  in  the 
last  series  the  body  was  bent  backward  four  to  six  times. 


72  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

In  the  first  series  the  total  number  of  beats  of  the 
heart  for  forty  persons  was  sixteen  hundred  and 
twenty-nine  (1,629).  After  the  run  the  pulse-rate  went 
up  to  2,227.  It  fell  again  after  the  leg  work  and  breath- 
ing exercises  to  1,668.  In  the  second  series  of  tests, 
the  normal  pulse  was  1,648 ;  after  the  run  2,228,  and 
after  place  rest  1,646.  The  third  series  showed  the  nor- 
mal pulse  1,699,  after  the  run  2,326,  and  after  abdominal 
work  1,703.  The  following  table  will  perhaps  make  this 
plainer  : 

TEST. 

1.  Slow  leg  and  breathing  exercises,      1,629    2,227    1,668 

2.  Rest,  or  "  In  place  rest,"  1,648    2,228    1,646 

3.  Abdominal  work,  1,699    2,326    1,703- 

Another  set  of  figures  will  show  that  in  the  case  of  the 
first  forty  who  were  experimented  upon,  the  action  of 
the  heart  was  reduced  below  the  normal  in  thirteen  cases, 
above  the  normal  in  twenty  cases,  and  was  equal  in  seven 
cases.  In  the  second  test  the  action  of  the  heart  was 
below  normal  in  seventeen,  did  not  reach  the  normal  in 
eighteen,  and  was  equal  in  five.  In  the  last  test,  the 
heart-beat  was  reduced  below  normal  in  nineteen,  above 
normal  in  eighteen,  and  just  the  same  in  three,  so  that 
by  looking  at  the  following  table  we  find  that  the 
abdominal  work  brought  the  heart  down  below  the  nor- 
mal in  the  greatest  number  of  cases,  while  the  slow  leg 
work  and  breathing  show  the  least  reduction.  In  the 
first  test  we  find  the  greatest  number  who  are  above  the 
normal  after  the  so-called  "normalizing  exercises," 
while  in  the  second  and  third  they  were  the  same. 
Finally,  the  slow  leg  and  breathing  exercises  were  given, 


EFFECT  OF  CERTAIN  EXERCISES.  73 

and  brought  seven  back  to  exactly  normal  condition. 
<(i  In  place  rest "  was  given  next,  and  abdominal  work 
•came  last. 

Test.  Below.  Above.  Normal. 

1.  Slow  leg  and  breathing  exercises,  13  20  7 

2.  Rest,  17  18  5 

3.  Abdominal  work,  19  18  3 
Fig.  1,  standing  normal,  1-2  m.,  38. 

Fig.  2,  30  seconds  run,  pulse-rate  75  for  1-2  in. 
Fig.  3,  after  slow  leg  work  and  breathing  exercises, 
pulse  for  1-2  m.,  39. 
Fig.  4,  after  1-2  m.,  "  in  place  rest,"  pulse  39. 


M 


The  tests  recorded  upon  the  revolving  drum  will  not 
be  given  because  they  do  not  show  quite  so  plainly 
as  those  by  the  Dudgeon  sphygmograph.  Fig.  1 
shows  the  normal  pulse,  38  beats  for  half  a  minute, 


74  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

person  standing.  This  tracing  is  a  fair  sample  of  those 
taken  from  the  normal  pulse.  Fig.  2  shows  the  pulse- 
rate  after  the  patient  has  run  in  place  for  thirty  seconds, 
the  rate  being  75.  Fig.  3  gives  the  story  of  the  pulse 
after  thirty  seconds  of  slow  leg  work  and  breathing  ex- 
ercises, the  rate  being  39,  or  one  greater  than  normal. 
Fig.  4  shows  the  action  of  the  pulse  after  thirty  seconds 
in  place  rest.  We  notice  by  comparing  Fig.  4  with  Fig. 
1  that  it  approaches  nearer  the  normal  than  Fig.  3.  In 
Fig.  4  the  cardiac  impulse  is  greater  than  in  Fig.  3,  the 
length  of  the  tidal  wave  is  about  the  same,  there  is  some 
difference  in  the  dicrotic  wave,  while  the  diastolic  curve 
in  Fig.  4  seems  to  be  nearer  that  of  Fig.  1  than  does  Fig.  3. 

Conclusions.  I  do  not  wish  to  place  myself  on  rec- 
ord as  saying  that  these  tests  prove  a  point.  They  are 
interesting,  however,  and  should  lend  some  weight  to 
these  conclusions.  Slow  leg  and  breathing  exercises 
tend  to  "  normalize"  the  action  of  the  heart  after  running, 
but  this  is  also  true  of  standing  "  in  place  rest,"  and  ab- 
dominal work.  But  which  is  best?  Pupils  seem  to 
prefer  the  first  method  if  the  choice  is  left  to  them.  The 
tracings  show  that  rest  brings  the  pulse  outline  nearer 
the  normal  than  do  breathing  exercises  and  slow  leg 
work. 

The  statement  has  been  made  that  "the  Swedish  sys- 
tem is  rational,  and  there  is  a  scientific  reason  for  every- 
thing adopted."  There  is  no  doubt  in  my  mind  that  the 
Swedish  system  in  its  theory  approaches  nearer  perfec- 
tion than  any  other;  but  there  is  some  uncertainty 
among  American  teachers  as  to  whether  the  statement 
should  be  made  that  the  arrangement  of  the  day's  order 


EFFECT  OF  CERTAIN  EXERCISES.  75 

is  scientific.  If  this  is  true,  and  I  have  no  reason  for 
wishing  it  were  not,  the  facts  ought  to  be  brought  for- 
ward to  prove  it. 

The  attention  of  the  reader  is  called  to  the  reply  to  this 
chapter  by  Baron  Posse.    See  Posse  Gymnasium  Journal. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

STIMULUS,   OB  HOW  TO  AROUSE  INTEREST. 

G.  STANLEY  HALL  says  :  "As  teachers,  we  have  to 
work  more  and  more  with  interest.  You  cannot  lay  too 
much  of  the  stress  of  educational  work  upon  the  will 
with  children,  but  most  of  it  must  be  done  through  in- 
terest. The  value  of  your  teaching  is  not  the  informa- 
tion you  have  to  put  into  the  mind,  but  the  interest  you 
have  awakened.  The  mind  is  evolved  out  of  heartiness. 
The  characters  of  great  men  prove  this.  Whether  in 
fiction  or  in  prose,  we  are  always  coming  up  against  the 
great  fact  that  it  is  enthusiasm  that  governs  the  world." 

President  Eliot  says  :  "  The  individual  requires  teach- 
ing in  these  days,  and  no  teaching  is  good  which  does 
not  awaken  interest  in  the  pupil." 

To  what  qualities  or  methods  is  due  the  success  which 
the  best  teachers  achieve  in  stirring  their  pupils  to  at- 
tentiveness,  to  interest  in  their  work,  and,  generally,  to 
intellectual  keenness  and  growth?  This  chapter  is  in- 
tended to  draw  particular  attention  to  those  qualities 
which  are  capable  of  being  adopted  or  acquired,  and  are 
not  merely  natural  gifts.  "One  great  difficulty  of  my 
subject,  every  one  will  feel  at  once.  It  is  this  :  that  the 
power  of  stimulating  pupils  is  so  largely  a  matter  of  nat- 
ural aptitude,  a  special  form  of  genius,  that  it  becomes 
not  only  very  difficult  to  analyze,  but  it  may  even  seem 

76 


STIMULUS,   OR  HOW  TO  AROUSE  INTEREST.  77 

that  the  whole  topic  is  at  variance  with  the  practical  art 
of  teaching.  It  is  true,  no  doubt,  that  in  all  branches 
of  teaching,  the  lively  and  attractive  manner,  quick- 
ness and  adaptability  and  resource,  insight  into  charac- 
ter and  the  speaker's  instinctive  sympathy  with  his 
audience,  real  personal  interest,  both  in  the  studies  and 
the  students,  force  and  variety  and  felicity  of  expres- 
sion, wide  and  accurate  knowledge,  the  power  of  seizing 
upon  the  telling  points  of  a  subject  and  presenting  them 
suitably,  apt  and  copious  illustration,  and,  above  all,  a 
strong  personality  and  high-mindedness  of  character- 
all  these  are  most  powerful  stimulants  to  young  natures 
brought  under  their  influence,  and  all,  or  most  of  them, 
are  hard,  if  not  impossible,  to  give  rules  or  codes  of  ac- 
quiring. They  constitute,  or  they  go  far  to  constitute, 
the  genius  of  the  teacher."* 

It  is  essential  that  the  teacher  shall  have  at  his  dis- 
posal a  fund  of  illustrations,  perhaps  stories,  and  at 
times  anecdotes.  The  first  requisite  in  a  teacher  is  that 
he  shall  be  able  to  secure  the  attention  of  his  class. 
Those  who  cannot  do  this  have  mistaken  their  vocation, 
they  ought  not  to  be  teachers  at  all.  Those  who  have 
the  power  of  securing  attention  can  usually  do  so  with 
ease.  It  is  an  art  that  can  be  acquired  by  study. 

My  attention  was  called  to  the  method  adopted  by  a 
well-known  Greek  professor  in  one  of  our  universities. 
It  has  been  thought  that  there  should  exist  between  the 
teacher  and  the  pupil  an  abyss  or  chasm,  across  which 
the  scholar  can  never  pass.  The  old-style  teaching  in- 
culcated these  ideas  in  the  minds  of  our  parents,  and  it 

*  Browning. 


78  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

has  been  a  difficult  matter  for  them  to  change  their 
views  in  the  days  of  their  advanced  age.  They  are  apt 
to  think  that  the  child  should  be  taught  as  they  were 
taught,  that  the  methods  which  were  used  in  disciplin- 
ing them  should  be  those  of  the  present  generation. 
They  forget  that  the  child  is  supposed  to  start  from  their 
shoulders,  and  is  living  in  a  more  advanced  age.  The 
professor  of  Greek  in  one  of  our  universities  on  one  oc- 
casion startled  the  class  by  a  very  lively  anecdote,  which 
produced  roars  of  laughter.  It  was  a  new  idea  to  the 
boys  that  the  instructor  could  be  amusing,  and  to-day 
it  is  doubtful  if  there  is  a  more  popular  professor  on  the 
faculty  than  this  one,  who,  although  willing  to  meet  the 
boys  on  their  own  ground,  to  talk  with  them  of  their 
daily  affairs  and  enter  more  into  their  lives,  never  per- 
mitted them  to  take  liberties  with  him.  This  shows 
that  a  university  professor  can  joke  with  students,  be, 
to  some  extent,  "one  of  the  boys,"  and  yet  keep  their 
respect. 

An  important  question  is,  How  can  we  stimulate  at- 
tention, which  is  one  of  the  requisites  in  producing  in- 
terest ?  The  obvious  answer  is,  by  making  the  lessons  as 
interesting  and  amusing  as  possible.  Interesting,  of 
course,  but  how?  Manner  goes  for  something.  The 
teacher  can  be  easy,  friendly,  and  familiar.  Stiffness  is 
a  mistake.  It  has  been  said  that  the  school-teacher  must 
keep  up  his  dignity.  True,  but  it  can  be  kept  up  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  child  is  not  repelled,  but  rather  at- 
tracted. We  do  not  expect  a  teacher  of  gymnastics  to 
make  a  buffoon  of  himself,  nor  to  allow  the  children  to 
take  liberties  with  him  ;  but  at  the  same  time  he  can  re- 


STIMULUS,   OB  HOW  TO  AROUSE  INTEREST.  79 

member  that  the  old  saying,  "Familiarity  breeds  con- 
tempt "  is  not  in  all  cases  true.  A  certain  form  of  famil- 
iarity will  breed  contempt. 

The  teacher  should  pay  much  attention  to  little  things, 
such  as  tend  to  stimulate,  in  the  matter  of  education. 
The  teacher's  mind  and  sympathy  should  be  constantly 
active  on  this  point ;  he  should  cultivate  fertility  of  re- 
sources in  the  minutiae.  As  the  Eaton  grammar  says, 
the  nature  of  man  is  fond  of  novelty  ;  and  if  this  is  so, 
how  much  more  do  we  find  it  in  the  wide-awake,  alert, 
healthy  child  ! 

All  boys  are  fond  of  stories.  They  never  tire  of  hear- 
ing of  the  deeds  of  heroes  and  of  strong  men.  The  man 
or  woman  who  instructs  boys  should  be  familiar  with 
the  lives  of  the  great  and  the  strong  men  of  history. 
Seldom  has  a  class  failed  to  pay  strict  attention  when 
listening  to  the  exploits  of  that  well-known  athlete,  the 
father  of  his  country.  The  story  has  been  told  many 
times  how  George  Washington  made  a  running  broad 
jump  of  twenty-three  feet,  and  held  the  world's  record 
until  a  Brooklyn  man  finally  jumped  a  few  inches  far- 
ther than  he  did.  I  should  urge  the  teacher  to  read  of 
the  wrestling  bouts  of  this  well-known  president.  Speak 
of  his  height  and  stature.  William  Blaikie,  in  one  of  his 
lectures,  used  to  mention  the  fact  that  George  Washing- 
ton was  perfectly  straight  from  the  axilla  to  the  hip,  and 
that  his  wide  waist  was  a  sign  of  his  enormous  strength. 
What  makes  "Ivanhoe"  interesting  to  many  of  its 
readers?  The  feats  of  Richard  the  First  of  England, 
whose  mighty  arm  could  wield  the  heavy  sword.  In  Sir 
Walter  Scott's  "Talisman,"  boys  read  with  great  inter- 


80  METHODS  0?  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

est  the  test  made  by  Richard  the  Lion-hearted,  when, 
with  his  wonderful  sword,  he  severed  an  iron  mace 
measuring  an  inch  in  diameter  ;  and  they  also  wonder  at 
the  skill  of  Saladin,  who,  with  his  razor-edged  scimitar 
cut  in  two  the  light  silk  handkerchief. 

There  is  a  book  published  called  "The  Wonders  of 
Bodily  Strength  and  Skill."  The  stories  and  histories 
taken  from  this  book  have  frequently  stimulated  boys 
when  they  have  become  tired  of  the  routine  drill  in  the 
gymnasium.  It  is  not  necessary  to  go  back  to  history 
to  find  the  records  of  brave  and  strong  men.  We  find 
them  in  our  every-day  life.  Boys  and  girls  are  as  much 
interested  in  the  doings  of  the  modern  giant  as  they  are 
in  those  of  the  ancient.  Scholars  can  be  stimulated  to 
do  what  is  right,  to  obey  the  laws  of  health,  to  be  better 
children,  if  these  stories  are  properly  told.  The  reader 
should  understand  that  these  anecdotes  are  only  inci- 
dents in  the  lesson.  Often  when  the  class  is  tired  a. 
short  story  will  be  most  acceptable  to  them. 

No  one  can  successfully  teach  boys  who  does  not  know 
the  nature  of  these  young  animals.  This  can  be  learned 
by  carefully  studying  child-life.  It  is  better  to  regulate 
our  teaching  by  this  knowledge  than  to  work  without  it. 
For  example,  we  know  that  all  boys  are  fond  of  play ; 
then  make  their  work  seem  play  to  them.  When  a  class 
of  boys  enter  a  gymnasium  the  first  thing  they  do  is  to 
rush  for  some  of  the  swinging  apparatus  ;  they  turn  their 
backs  upon  all  the  light  appliances.  Any  experienced 
teacher  of  gymnastics  has  noticed  this.  What  do  we 
infer?  That  it  is  the  wish  of  the  boy  to  swing,  to  hang, 
or  to  go  through  some  of  the  heavy  gymnastic  move- 


STIMULUS,   OB  HOW  TO  AROUSE  INTEREST.  81 

ments.  He  enjoys  this  work,  it  seems  to  be  more  in  ac- 
cord with  his  nature.  Can  we  not,  therefore,  learn  a 
lesson  from  this,  and  so  arrange  the  gymnastic  exercises 
that  they  shall  be  as  attractive  to  the  boy  as  the  work 
which  he  takes  of  his  own  free  will?  I  do  not  mean 
that  the  lessons  in  free  gymnastics  shall  be  discarded, 
because  they  are  of  great  importance.  The  child  should 
be  daily  drilled  in  the  exercises  that  will  tend  to  over- 
come the  common  physical  defects.  It  soon  becomes 
medicine  to  the  boy,  but  it  is  essential,  nevertheless,  that 
every  child  should  be  trained  in  this  way,  and  should  not 
be  allowed  to  feel  that  life  is  entirely  free  from  restraint. 
Discipline  is  a  good  thing  for  a  boy,  it  must  be  found  in 
physical  as  well  as  in  mental  training.  The  gymnastic 
drill  can  be  made  very  attractive  to  both  boys  and  girls, 
if  the  teacher  will  use  tact. 

There  are  many  things  to  be  taken  into  consideration 
when  we  attempt  to  arouse  interest.  The  teacher  must, 
of  course,  be  interested  in  the  pupil ;  but  this  is  not  all. 
The  pupil,  on  his  side,  must  have  his  share  of  interest  in 
the  teacher.  To  arouse  this  feeling  the  master  gains  the 
confidence,  the  good-will,  the  respect  of  the  boys.  The 
limits  of  this  chapter  will  not  allow  us  to  go  into  many 
of  the  details,  but  attention  is  called  to  the  methods 
which  have  made  some  teachers  interesting. 

Personally,  I  have  learned  a  great  deal  from  two  classes 
of  instructors.  In  one  case  I  worked  because  I  feared 
them,  and  dreaded  the  results  of  not  having  a  lesson. 
In  the  other  case  I  had  the  utmost  respect  and  love  for 
the  teacher,  and  was  ashamed  to  fail.  The  question  was 
raised  by  a  minister  in  one  of  our  churches  once,  when 


82  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

he  said :  "  A  person  can  be  sent  to  heaven  in  two 
ways ;  he  can  either  be  allured  by  its  attractions,  or  he 
can  be  frightened  there  by  the  horrors  of  the  other  place." 
So  in  teaching — a  child  will  work,  fearing  punishment, 
or  he  will  work  because  he  loves  the  teacher.  Of  the  two 
forms,  of  course,  the  latter  is  preferable. 

Simplicity  is  very  essential  in  any  teacher.  That  in- 
structor who  can  make  his  work  so  simple  that  it  is 
understood  by  the  dullard  in  the  class  will  teach 
better  than  the  one  who  selects  the  five  or  six  bright 
ones  and  gives  his  attention  to  them.  We  are  apt 
to  make  this  mistake,  and  to  teach  the  few  rather 
than  the  many.  One  instructor  claims  that  he  watches 
the  stupid  boy  in  his  class,  and  when  he  sees  his  face 
lighten  up,  knows  that  he  has  grasped  the  subject. 

Another  method  of  making  the  work  interesting  is  to 
understand  the  subject  thoroughly,  to  make  a  study  of 
the  methods  of  teaching,  and  to  be  a  good  gymnast.  It 
has  been  said  that  it  is  not  essential  for  the  instructor 
in  gymnastics  to  be  a  good  exponent  of  his  work,  but 
if  he  can  lead  the  class  this  will  be  sufficient.  I  have 
found,  and  others  will  bear  me  out  in  the  statement, 
that  many  of  our  teachers  fail  because  they  are  easily 
beaten  by  their  own  scholars  in  these  gymnastic  move- 
ments. I  believe  in  what  may  be  termed  fancy  gymnas- 
tics. They  are  the  games  and  the  sports  which  the 
young  men  in  our  gymnasia  like.  The  teacher  will 
arouse  more  interest  and  greater  enthusiasm  if  he  is 
able  to  take  part  in  these  sports  than  will  the  one  whose 
knowledge  is  purely  theoretical.  Every  young  man  who 
teaches  gymnastics  should  become  proficient  in  handling 


STIMULUS,    OR   HOW  TO  AROUSE  INTEREST.  83 

the  heavy  apparatus ;  what  he  does  do  he  should  do 
well.  We  admit,  without  dwelling  at  length  upon  the 
fact,  that  we  have  respect  for  those  who  know  more 
than  we  do,  who  can  do  better  work  than  we  can,  and 
that  the  reverse  of  this  brings  a  reverse  opinion.  There- 
fore, in  arousing  or  stimulating  interest  and  keeping  it 
up,  I  should  say  to  the  teacher  of  gymnastics,  whether  a 
man  or  a  woman  :  Be  proficient  in  your  work,  but  re- 
member, as  Professor  Richards  has  said,  "  The  gymnastic 
work  is  not  the  ultimatum,  but  is  the  means  to  an  end." 

Interest.  The  teacher  may  learn  something  from 
Basedow,  who  taught  his  children  by  means  of  biscuits 
baked  in  the  form  of  letters.  The  children  were  allowed 
to  eat  any  letter  which  they  could  name. 

Locke  says  :  "  Whatever  children  are  deeply  inter- 
ested in  they  will  never  forget.  Therefore  I  think  it  may 
be  well  to  give  the  children  something  every  day  to  re- 
member, but  something  that  is  in  itself  worth  remem- 
bering." A  boy  who  cannot  say  his  lessons  may  have 
an  excellent  memory  for  baseball  or  football,  or  may  be 
able  to  describe  accurately  a  trip  he  has  made,  a  hunt 
upon  which  he  has  gone,  or  some  other  event  associated 
with  interest  and  pleasure.  Do  not,  therefore,  accuse 
your  children  of  not  having  memories  if  they  fail  to 
repeat  that  which  seems  to  them  dry  and  monotonous. 

A  child  will  remember  the  foolish  parts  of  a  lesson  and 
forget  the  wise  parts.  For  example,  it  has  been  said 
that  in  reading  the  history  of  the  life  of  a  famous  gen- 
eral, the  boys  never  forgot  the  fact  that  his  horse's  tail 
was  shot  off  in  a  certain  battle,  while  the  salient  points 
of  the  history  were  not  remembered  twenty-four  hours. 


CHAPTEE  VII. 

ATTENTION. 

ATTENTION  is  so  closely  allied  to  interest  that  the 
author  has  thought  best  to  write  a  short  chapter  upon 
this  subject. 

No  teacher  will  succeed  who  has  not  the  power  of 
holding  or  maintaining  the  attention  of  the  pupil.  It  is 
utterly  impossible.  Therefore  it  is  necessary  for  the  one 
who  leads  the  class  to,  in  some  way,  arouse  and  hold  the 
attention  of  the  child.  Interest  always  begets  attention  ; 
therefore,  if  you  are  not  an  adept  at  arousing  attention, 
but  have  the  faculty  of  creating  interest,  do  the  latter, 
because  the  former  will  follow.  Condillac  says  :  "The 
important  point  is  to  make  the  child  comprehend  what 
attention  is."  We  do  not  believe,  with  Condillac,  that 
this  is  the  important  point.  It  is  not  so  much  to  teach 
the  child  to  be  attentive  as  the  way  to  succeed  in  this. 
Do  not  explain  theoretical  conditions,  because  they 
amount  to  nothing  ;  but  interest  the  child.  The  teacher 
is  sure  of  success,  and  instruction  really  begins,  on  the 
day  that  he  has  held  the  attention  of  his  pupils  for  a 
certain  number  of  minutes.  It  will  be  easily  noticed 
that  the  scholars  who  have  lost  their  interest,  who  are 
not  sufficiently  aroused  to  pay  attention,  will  permit 
their  eyes  to  wander.  The  time  has  now  come  for  the 
teacher  to  act,  and  if  the  work  that  has  been  given  to 

84 


ATTENTION.  85 

the  child  does  not  produce  the  desired  result,  a  quick 
change  of  some  kind  should  be  made.  That  time  is  lost 
to  the  teacher  and  to  the  class  when  disorder  reigns  and 
the  interest  is  lacking. 

Attention,  of  course,  requires  the  use  of  the  will,  and 
in  this  way  we  educate  that  important  factor  of  the 
mind.  We  cannot  attach  too  much  importance  to  the 
subject.  The  history  of  the  most  brilliant  scientific 
discoveries  and  of  the  great  works  of  human  art  is,  for 
the  most  part,  but  the  recital  of  the  efforts  of  the  atten- 
tion. Newton  said  that  he  discovered  the  laws  of  uni- 
versal attraction  by  always  thinking  on  the  subject,  or 
by  paying  attention.  It  is  characteristic  of  a  normal 
state  of  intelligence  and,  so  to  speak,  the  health  of  the 
spirit.  That  teacher  who  is  hot  able  to  place  her  atten- 
tion upon  the  subject  is  not,  for  the  time  being,  in  a 
healthy  mental  condition.  The  one  who  allows  herself 
or  her  attention  to  be  easily  called  away  from  the  subject 
should  investigate  and  ascertain  the  cause  and  then  re- 
move that  cause. 

Children  are  easily  distracted,  and  distraction  is  the 
very  opposite  of  attention.  Therefore  allow  nothing  to 
distract  their  attention.  It  is  far  better,  in  teaching 
children,  that  the  room  should  be  so  arranged  that  noth- 
ing in  the  street  or  outside  of  the  building  will  distract 
them.  It  is  better  to  have  the  curtains  raised  from  the 
bottom  of  the  windows  than  to  be  lowered  from  the  top. 
It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  have  in  the  room  too  many  ob- 
jects that  will  call  their  attention  away  from  the  lesson. 
It  is  unwise  to  allow  a  series  of  exercises  to  be  carried  on 
in  one  part  of  the  room  while  the  teacher  is  endeavoring 


86  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

to  instruct  a  class  in  another.  For  example,  we  would 
not  allow  individual  work  of  any  character  to  go  on 
while  a  class  was  being  drilled  in  light  gymnastics.  The 
reason  is  obvious. 

We  should  not  expect  or  demand  of  a  child  real,  abso- 
lute attention,  and  expect  to  maintain  it  for  more  than 
a  few  minutes.  We  might  as  well  expect  immobility  on 
the  part  of  a  bird.  Imposed  attention,  as  mentioned  by 
Payne,  is  a  matter  that  requires  some  thought.  The 
best  plan  will  be  to  place  a  child  in  such  a  condition 
that  nothing  will  excite  distraction.  Madame  de  Saussure 
has  said:  "Cause  a  calm  to  reign  around  the  infant." 
On  one  occasion  we  requested  our  teacher  to  allow  us  to 
go  to  the  orchard  back  of  the  school  to  study  our  lessons. 
We  had  a  pleasant  hour  under  the  trees,  but  our  lessons 
were  not  learned.  Our  attention  was  constantly  called 
to  what  was  going  on  in  the  trees,  in  the  fields,  or  we 
were  watching  the  boys  in  the  lot  below  us,  who  were 
busy  playing  ball.  So  in  teaching  gymnastics.  Do  not 
allow  anything  to  interfere  with  the  lesson  itself.  The 
limit  of  a  child's  attention  is  soon  exhausted.  He  will, 
moreover,  apply  it  to  what  he  is  interested  in. 

Finally,  in  a  general  way,  the  attention  of  a  child  is 
weak,  and  there  must  be  a  resort  to  all  sorts  of  stimu- 
lants which  are  healthy  to  arouse  and  keep  it.  Horace 
Grant  has  shown  that  beyond  from  five  to  ten  minutes 
for  young  children  and  from  thirty  to  forty-five  for  older 
pupils,  the  attention  is  wearied  and  intellectual  effort 
comes  to  an  end.  We  would  not  infer  from  this  that  a 
child  can  be  taught  but  five  minutes.  It  is  well  to  com- 
pel them  to  pay  strict  attention  to  the  lesson  for  a  short 


ATTENTION.  87 

time,  then  to  allow  them  an  interval  of  rest,  such  as 
would  be  given  in  the  command,  "In  place,  rest."  They 
can  be  called  to  order  and  another  exercise  given,  this  to 
be  followed  by  the  interval  of  rest.  It  is  not  supposed, 
however,  that  the  gymnastic  lesson  for  a  child  will  ex- 
tend over  a  period  of  more  than  twenty  to  thirty 
minutes. 

The  child  displays  the  whole  of  his  power  at  the  be- 
ginning of  his  task,  but  he  is  soon  at  the  limit  of  his 
strength,  and  he  needs  to  be  occupied  with  something 
else.  Be  careful,  then,  to  go  gradually  in  your  teaching. 
The  lessons  should  be  short  at  first  and  grow  longer  as 
the  pupil's  power  of  attention  is  developed.  There 
should  be  a  period  of  exercise,  frequent  commands  of 
rest,  and  the  interesting  part  of  the  work  should  be  kept 
for  the  last  of  the  lesson. 

Avoid  teaching  to  the  child  too  early  general  truths, 
formulas,  rules,  or  anything  which  repels  him  because  he 
does  not  easily  comprehend.  One  who  has  paid  atten- 
tion to  the  writings  of  Herbert  Spencer  cannot  fail  to  be 
impressed  with  the  emphasis  which  he  places  upon  this 
idea.  Avoid  the  parrot  fashion.  Do  not  cram  a  child's 
head  with  senseless  maxims  and  axioms.  He  under- 
stands the  reality.  A  child  does  not  comprehend  a  joke 
for  this  reason.  Elsewhere  the  attention  of  the  reader 
will  be  called  to  the  value  of  teaching  children  by  the 
picture  method,  rather  than  the  word.  This  is  one  of 
the  quickest  ways  in  which  to  hold  the  interest  of  a  little 
child.  We  have  found  that  it  is  a  wise  plan  for  the 
teacher  to  give  what  may  be  termed  imitation  work, 
which  requires  the  constant  attention  of  the  child  for  a 


88  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

very  short  time.  She  may,  for  example,  assume  some 
posture  and  allow  the  child  to  copy  that.  This  may  be 
changed,  and  the  child  allowed  to  do  as  she  does.  Or 
the  teacher  may  take  a  position,  the  child  will  study  it 
for  a  minute  ;  the  teacher  then  resumes  the  fundamental 
standing  position  and  asks  the  child  to  do  as  she  did. 
We  have  held  the  attention  of  the  child,  and  aroused 
interest.  It  is  also  well  for  the  teacher  to  take  some  gro- 
tesque position  or  assume  some  awkward  attitude,  and 
allow  the  child  to  associate  with  this  imitation  work  the 
element  of  fun  or  play. 

The  exterior  signs  which  are  characteristic  of  the  at- 
tention of  a  child  are  rarely  the  same  exterior  signs 
which  announce  attention  in  the  man  or  the  adult.  The 
man  who  thinks  very  frequently  clasps  the  hands  back 
of  the  body,  walks  up  and  down  the  room  with  the  head 
bent  forward.  If  he  places  his  attention  more  directly 
upon  the  subject,  he  will  frequently  stand  still,  fold  the 
arms  in  front,  and  drop  the  head  still  farther  forward,  or 
he  may  place  the  hand  upon  the  forehead.  We  do  not 
observe  in  a  child  similar  signs  of  attention.  It  is 
impossible  for  a  small  boy  or  a  small  girl  to  think  and 
remain  immovable.  The  eyes  will  wander  to  the  right 
or  the  left,  some  part  of  the  body  will  move,  and  I 
know  of  one  small  boy  who  would  fail  in  doing  his 
sums  in  arithmetic  if  he  were  not  permitted  to  chew 
the  end  of  his  lead  pencil.  In  short,  the  child  has 
need  of  movement,  even  when  he  is  studying,  and  I 
should  not  allow  the  teacher  to  prevent  all  action  if  this 
is  the  nature  of  the  little  one.  There  is  need  of  move- 
ment ;  therefore  do  not  prevent  it.  No  woman  who  has 


ATTENTION.  89 

forgotten  the  nature  of  a  child,  or  has  forgotten  what  she 
used  to  do,  should  be  permitted  to  teach  boys  and  girls. 
Do  not  misunderstand  me  when  I  say  that  the  child 
should  be  allowed  to  fidget  while  at  work.  There  are 
exceptions  to  all  rules,  and  I  do  not  believe  that  the 
child  should  approach  the  movements  of  one  who  has 
St.  Vitus'  dance,  but  I  would  not  shut  off  all  movement 
from  the  thinking  child. 

The  stimulants  of  attention,  or  the  methods  of  buying 
interest,  should  be  discussed.  I  believe  there  is  not  an 
educational  institution  of  any  importance  in  America 
that  does  not  sanction  the  giving  of  premiums — in  other 
words,  the  buying  of  attention  and  interest  by  gifts  and 
honors.  This  is  all  right  to  a  certain  extent,  but  I  do 
not  believe  that  the  interest  of  the  class  in  gymnastics 
or  of  the  individual  should  be  purchased  by  the  offer  of 
a  medal  or  reward  ;  neither  do  I  agree  with  that  teacher 
who  feels  that  she  must  compel  the  child,  by  threats  or 
by  the  rod,  to  take  the  gymnastic  movements  or  to  excel 
in  any  bodily  exercise.  It  is  far  better  that  the  subject 
itself  should  be  so  presented  by  the  teacher  that  the  at- 
tention and  interest  will  be  aroused,  and  I  know  that  a 
good  teacher  of  gymnastics  can  do  this  without  attempt- 
ing to  buy  the  interest  of  the  scholar  with  promises  of 
reward. 

How  to  create  interest  is  a  study,  and  the  success  of 
any  teacher  will  depend,  to  a  great  extent,  upon  this, 
what  has  been  called  by  some,  knack.  Affection  for  the 
teacher  will  arouse  interest  and  stimulate  attention,  and 
all  teachers  should  at  least  have  arid  hold  the  good-will 
of  their  pupils.  Pleasure  is  a  most  powerful  stimulant 


90  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

to  effort,  and  the  lesson  that  is  pleasing  will  greatly 
stimulate  the  pupils.  It  has  often  been  said  that  the 
Swedish  system  of  gymnastics  would  fail  in  this  country 
because  it  lacks  the  very  essential  element  of  interest. 
I  believe  that  any  good,  energetic,  wide-awake  teacher 
can  teach  the  Swedish  system  of  gymnastics,  and  arouse 
as  much  interest  as  the  teacher  who  gives  her  time  en- 
tirely to  the  merits  of  the  American  plan.  This  was 
noticeable  in  the  work  of  Miss  Jennie  Ireson,  of  Bos- 
ton, who  teaches  in  the  schools  of  some  of  the  adjoining 
cities  the  pure  Swedish  system,  and  in  the  public  schools 
of  another  city  what  may  be  termed  the  American  sys- 
tem. The  little  children  were  trained  in  the  former 
method,  and  I  have  never  seen  happier,  more  interested 
children  than  I  saw  in  her  classes.  The  work  was  well 
done,  well  taught,  while  the  children  seemed  to  be  in- 
spired by  the  enthusiasm  of  the  teacher. 

We  must  bear  in  mind  that  if  the  class  is  not  inter- 
ested, or  has  not  the  power  of  placing  its  attention  upon 
the  work,  there  must  be  a  cause.  Let  us,  therefore,  look 
for  the  cause  and  remove  it,  before  attempting  anything 
else.  Simplicity,  clearness,  cleanness  of  exposition,  will 
have  a  happy  effect  on  the  dispositions  of  the  scholars 
in  the  class.  We  know  that  the  tone  of  voice  or  attitude 
of  the  teacher  will  also  arouse  great  interest  in  the  work. 
These  are  but  little  things,  but  they  will  contribute 
greatly  toward  exciting  the  interest  and  holding  the  at- 
tention of  those  who  learn  a  lesson. 

I  do  not  believe  that  we  should  always  attempt  to 
make  everything  agreeable  and  attractive.  The  children 
must  understand  that  there  is  another  side  to  this  work. 


ATTENTION.  91 

and  that  they  must  strive  to  overcome  those  obstacles 
which  are  not  pleasing  to  them,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  better  prepared  to  meet  the  world  and  the 
adverse  criticisms  which  will  be  brought  to  bear  upon 
them  later  in  life.  There  are  two  sides  to  this  question, 
and  the  child  should  know  them  both,  but  the  successful 
teachers  in  the  world  have  been  those  who  understood 
the  art  of  arousing  interest  and  holding  the  attention. 

Curiosity  will  always  hold  the  attention  of  the  class. 
The  teacher  who  says  to  the  pupils  in  her  gymnastic 
class,  "  I  want  to  show  you  a  new  exercise,"  will  at  once 
hold  their  attention,  their  curiosity.  '*  Happy  are  those 
teachers  who  have  to  do  with  intelligences  naturally 
curious,  but  especially  happy  are  those  who  know  how 
to  excite  curiosity  and  keep  it  active.  For  this  purpose 
we  must  skilfully  appeal  to  the  tastes  of  a  child  and  favor 
them,  yet  without  overtaxing  them."*  "  Eagerness  to 
derive  advantage  from  a  taste  is  often  a  cause  of  our  kill- 
ing it."  f  We  should  not  smother  the  curiosity  of  a 
child  by  satiating  it  too  soon.  We  must  bear  in  mind 
that  the  teacher  of  gymnastics  does  not  come  in  such 
close  contact  with  the  children  as  do  the  teachers  of  the 
mental  branches,  with  whom  the  child  spends  several 
hours  a  day.  I  should  therefore  advise  the  teacher  of 
physical  training  to  meet  the  children  outside  of  the 
school,  take  them  on  walks,  if  necessary,  allow  them  to 
visit  the  gymnasiums  in  the  vicinity,  and  to  give  them 
once  in  a  while  practical  talks  on  the  care  of  the  body. 

*  Payne. 

t  De  Saussure. 


92  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

In  this  way  she  will  know  the  child  better  and  will 
come  into  closer  touch  with  the  parents. 

To  arouse  the  attention  give  the  children  something 
new.  Do  not  expect  to  succeed  if  you  give  a  child  the 
same  work  year  after  year.  I  know  of  no  man  who 
can  equal  in  this  respect  Dr.  Hitchcock  of  Amherst 
College,  who  could  successfully  teach  the  same  dumb- 
bell drill  for  four  years.  It  was  not  so  much  the  arrange- 
ment of  exercises  that  made  this  work  popular,  but  the 
doctor  himself.  I  have  heard  one  Amherst  man  state 
that  there  was  not  another  physician  in  America  who 
could  arouse  and  hold  the  interest  of  his  pupils  as 
could  Dr.  Hitchcock,  whose  name  is  synonymous  with 
kindness  and  goodness.  Avoid  falling  into  a  rut. 
Change  the  way  of  giving  a  command  ;  suddenly  stop 
an  exercise  and  give  one  of  another  character.  We 
may  be  violating,  perhaps,  some  law  laid  down  by  the 
advocate  of  some  other  system  of  gymnastics,  but  I  do 
not  believe  that  any  harm  will  result. 

It  is  essential  that  the  class  should  be  kept  good 
natured.  When  any  faculty  of  a  child  is  wearied,  it  is 
necessary  to  grant  it  some  respite  and  make  an  appeal  to 
other  faculties.  The  mind  of  a  child  is  just  as  eager  for 
a  change  as  that  of  an  adult.  Nothing  is  so  difficult 
to  listen  to  and  to  follow  as  the  monotonous  teaching  of 
some  of  our  instructors.  Give  to  the  class  a  few  things, 
or  only  one  thing,  at  a  time,  drill  them  a  while  upon 
this  before  passing  to  another.  Children,  as  well  as 
adults,  will  soon  become  dissatisfied  with  poor  teaching, 
and  they  will  discuss  in  their  own  little  way  a  gymnas- 
tic exercise  that  is  poorly  taught  and  half  learned.  Mr. 


93 

Sully  says  he  would  be  a  foolish  teacher  who  gave  a 
child  a  number  of  disconnected  things  to  do  at  a  time, 
or  who  should  insist  on  keeping  his  mind  bent  on  the 
same  subject  for  an  indefinite  period.  I  would  say  to 
the  teacher,  Do  not  become  verbose,  do  not  allow  your 
thought  to  overflow  its  limits,  do  not  talk  too  much.  A 
child  does  not  come  to  the  gymnasium  to  be  preached 
to  for  three  quarters  of  its  lesson. 

Remember  that  action  is  essential  in  the  education  of 
a  child.  If  talking  or  preaching  or  lecturing  is  to  be 
done,  it  should  be  when  the  children  are  in  the  school- 
rooms and  seated.  The  story  of  the  Esquimaux,  as  told 
by  Miss  Edgeworth,  is  interesting.  Newly  arrived  in 
London,  they  had  visited  in  one  day  all  the  monuments 
of  the  capital,  under  the  conduct  of  a  guide  who  was  in 
too  much  of  a  hurry,  and  who  was  like  too  many  teachers 
of  gymnastics.  On  their  return,  when  they  were  asked 
what  they  had  seen,  they  did  not  know  what  to  say.  It 
was  with  difficulty  that  one  of  them,  repeatedly  urged 
to  speak,  finally  aroused  himself  from  his  torpor  and 
said,  shaking  his  head,  "Too  much  noise,  too  much 
smoke,  too  much  houses,  too  much  men,  too  much 
everything."  According  to  M.  Breal,  "So  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  teacher  should  keep  his  position,  holding  the 
class  under  his  eyes  and  requiring  that  all  eyes  should  be 
turned  toward  him.  The  instruction  is  not  to  begin 
until  the  children  have  taken  the  erect  attitude.  The 
lesson  should  not  be  continued  until  the  class  become 
impatient.  As  soon  as  inattention  appears,  the  teacher 
stops.  A  means  of  reanimating  the  class,  but  a  means 
which  should  not  be  abused,  is  to  change  the  position  of 


94  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

the  class  and  begin  a  new  exercise  at  the  word  of  com- 
mand. The  pupils  should  always  respond,  if  necessary, 
but  they  should  not  be  accustomed  to  hear  the  explosive 
or  the  loud  voice.  Their  ears  soon  become  accustomed 
to  the  explosions  of  the  voice,  and  then  they  are  good 
for  nothing." 

Attention  is  stronger  in  the  morning  than  in  the  af- 
ternoon, and  it  is  stronger  during  the  first  hours  of  the 
session  than  later,  although  I  have  found  that  the  first 
hour  on  Monday  morning,  or  even  Monday  itself,  is  the 
hard  part  of  the  week.  It  is  better  to  put  on  interesting 
work  for  Monday  and  for  Friday,  rather  than  to  give  it 
in  the  middle  of  the  week.  The  teacher  must  take  into 
account  these  differences,  in  order  to  meet  them  and  to 
regulate  the  studies.  Kant  says :  "  Distractions  ought 
never  to  be  tolerated,  at  least  in  school,  for  they  end  by 
degenerating  into  habits.  The  finest  talents  are  lost  in 
a  man  who  is  subject  to  distractions.  Inattentive  chil- 
dren only  half  hear,  reply  wholly  at  random,  and  do 
not  know  what  they  read."  Cannot  this  rule  be  just  as 
readily  applied  to  some  of  our  teachers  of  gymnastics  as 
to  children  ? 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

DISCIPLINE,   OB  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT. 

IT  has  been  said  that  the  disciplinarian,  as  the  teacher, 
is  born  and  not  made.  There  is  truth  in  the  statement, 
but  it  does  not  follow  that  the  disciplinarian  cannot  be 
made.  There  are  rules  formulated  that  will  be  of  service 
to  any  teacher.  The  man  or  woman  fortunate  enough 
to  be  included  in  the  class  of  those  who  are  born  teach- 
ers does  not  depend  so  much  on  these  laws,  although 
unconsciously  applying  them.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
unfortunate  who  belongs  to  the  class  of  those  who  are 
not  born  teachers  should  know  the  rules  that  are  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  teaching. 

Discipline  should  be  enforced  in  any  class.  In  the 
gymnasium  it  is  almost  of  vital  importance  that  the 
teacher  have  order.  Much  of  the  success  of  the  leader 
depends  upon  good  ruling.  One  may  be  called  upon  to 
give  instruction  to  a  class  of  small  boys.  To  know  some- 
thing of  the  nature  of  this  small  American,  visit  the 
gymnasium  some  day  and  study  him.  Full  of  life,  en- 
ergy, and  vitality,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  him 
within  bounds.  He  will  disobey  commands  without 
meaning  to  do  so,  because  of  the  surplus  of  animal  life, 
causing  the  inexperienced  teacher,  who  is  apt  to  lay  all 
this  trouble  to  the  natural  depravity  of  boys,  to  lose  her 
temper  and  scold.  It  will  require  patience  and  tact  to 

95 


96  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

handle  a  class  of  boys.  The  teacher  should  understand 
them — the  men,  remembering  that  they  were  once  boys, 
and  the  women,  that  they  at  some  time  had  small 
brothers.  The  teacher  should  be  wide-awake,  alert,  see- 
ing everything,  forgetting  self,  and  very  positive. 

As  a  rule,  we  can  lay  disorder,  confusion,  irregularity, 
and  accidents  to  the  teacher,  and  not  to  the  pupil.  Even 
if  it  is  not  the  fault  of  the  teacher,  it  will  reflect  back 
upon  the  management  of  the  gymnasium.  The  small 
boy  is  apt  to  break  away — in  other  words,  to  uncon- 
sciously violate  the  rules.  One  of  the  best  plans  of  cir- 
cumventing this  is  to  remove  temptation  from  him. 
The  temptation  may  be  in  this  form  :  The  boy  is  permit- 
ted to  go  to  the  gymnasium  before  the  allotted  time  for 
the  lesson,  in  which  case  there  is  neither  teacher  nor 
assistant  to  supervise.  He  can  then  use  any  piece  of 
apparatus  he  wishes.  Several  may  struggle  for  the  bar 
or  the  rings,  and  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  a 
child  is  hurt  at  this  time.  Again,  instructors  are  care- 
less about  leaving  the  apparatus  so  that  it  can  be  easily 
handled  by  the  boys.  All  rings,  bars,  ropes,  and  poles 
should  be  either  removed  or  pulled  up.  The  ticks  should 
be  packed  away  in  one  corner,  and  everything  that  is 
within  the  reach  of  the  members  of  the  class  should  be 
disposed  of  or  fastened,  with  the  exception  of  the  light 
apparatus  and  the  chest  weights.  If  the  boys  cannot  use 
the  heavy  appliances  they  will  go  for  the  light.  They 
find  pleasure  in  pulling  at  the  chest  weights,  letting  the 
carriages  drop,  in  which  case  they  are  frequently  broken 
or  cracked  ;  or  they  will  remove  the  dumb  bells  from  the 
racks  and  skate  around  the  room  on  them. 


DISCIPLINE,   OB  SCHOOL.  GOVERNMENT.  97 

There  should  be  a  certain  number  of  rules  made,  these 
rules  to  apply  to  all  classes  in  the  gymnasium  ;  but  a  rule 
is  worse  than  useless  if  it  is  not  enforced.  It  is  well  to 
have  but  a  few  of  these  regulations,  but  there  must  be 
one  rule  to  govern  these,  namely,  enforce  them.  There 
may,  some  day,  come  to  the  class  the  sons  or  the  daugh- 
ters of  the  principal,  trustee,  or  some  professor  in  your 
school.  They  are  in  their  own,  and  too  often  in  their 
parents'  minds,  privileged.  They  think,  because  their 
father  is  at  the  head  of  the  school,  or  the  mother  is  em- 
ployed as  a  teacher,  that  they  are  entitled  to  do  a  little 
more  than  the  others.  Consequently,  they  are  hard  to 
manage.  If  that  boy  violates  a  rule  his  neighbor  can  do 
the  same.  Because  the  first  lad  is  backed  up  by  influ- 
ence, he  is  not  therefore  entitled  to  privileges  that  should 
not  be  extended  to  others. 

A  teacher  will  often  be  called  upon  to  deal  with  the 
parents,  in  which  case  she  should  use  patience,  tact,  and, 
above  all,  keep  her  temper.  The  boy  who  is  not  in  the 
habit  of  obeying  at  home  will  not  do  so  at  school.  The 
teacher  must  be  prepared  to  deal  with  this  specimen. 
No  instructor  can  successfully  cope  with  the  members 
of  such  a  class  unless  she  has  made  a  study  of  boys, 
understands  their  nature,  has  a  great  deal  of  patience, 
and  is  able  to  meet  them  and  to  deal  with  them  as  she 
should. 

41  Children  rarely  love  those  who  spoil  them,  and  they 
never  trust  them.  Their  keen  young  sense  detects  the 
false  note  in  the  character,  and  draws  its  own  conclusions, 
which  are  very  generally  just."  Herbert  Spencer  says : 
"  Let  the  history  of  your  school  work  typify  a  little  the 


98  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

history  of  our  political  rule  —at  the  outset  autocratic  con- 
trol where  control  is  needful;  by  and  by  an  incipient 
constitutionalism,  in  which  the  liberty  of  the  subject 
gains  some  express  recognition  ;  successive  extensions  of 
this  liberty  of  the  subject,  gradually  ending  in  paternal 
abdication. "  I  may  also  add,  in  the  abdication  of  the 
teacher.  "  If  that  child  is  unhappy  who  has  none  of  his 
rights  respected,  equally  wretched  is  the  little  despot 
who  has  more  than  his  own  rights — who  has  never  been 
taught  to  respect  the  rights  of  others,  and  whose  only 
conception  of  life  and  living  is  that  it  is  an  absolute 
monarchy,  of  which  he  is  the  sole  ruler."  The  teacher 
must  be  prepared  to  meet  just  such  a  child.  It  may  be 
of  assistance  to  the  young  teacher  to  call  to  mind  some 
case  in  which  she  has  the  power  to  control  either  boys  or 
girls.  It  may  be  one,  or  it  may  be  more.  Is  this  control 
due  to  fear,  or  to  love?  If  it  is  possible  for  a  teacher  to 
manage  one,  it  will  also  be  possible  for  her  to  manage 
many. 

The  teacher  must  not  be  a  coward.  Unfortunately,  too 
many  of  our  instructors  are  timid.  They  are  either 
afraid  to  hurt  the  feelings  of  a  scholar,  or  they  fear  the 
consequences  if  they  interfere  with  the  children  of  in- 
fluential parents.  As  a  teacher  or  a  director,  do  not  be 
afraid  to  assert  your  own  rights.  There  is  always  some 
scholar  in  your  class  of  whom  you  will  stand  somewhat 
in  awe.  It  may  be  because  he  is  disagreeable  ;  it  may  be 
because  he  has  a  little  of  the  bull-dog  element  about  him  ; 
it  may  be  that  you  can  get  along  better  by  letting  him 
alone.  He  will  very  soon  find  this  out,  and  the  other 
boys  will  notice  it.  The  matter  will  be  discussed ;  it 


DISCIPLINE,   OR  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT.  99 

will  later  on  cause  trouble  in  the  school.  The  first  case, 
therefore,  will  decide  a  great  deal  for  the  new  teacher. 
This  must  be  treated  quickly  and  firmly.  Always  hear 
the  boy's  side  of  the  story,  if  there  is  any  doubt  about 
his  wrong-doing.  Do  not  be  too  quick  and  hasty.  Do 
not  punish  a  child  without  first  permitting  him  to  say 
why  he  did  this  or  to  give  some  reason,  unless  you  know 
that  his  act  was  a  strict  violation  of  the  rules.  Under  no 
conditions  lose  your  temper.  If  you  do,  do  not  attempt 
to  punish  the  boy  at  that  time.  The  members  of  classes 
take  delight  in  "  rattling  "  the  teacher.  It  is  a  pleasure 
to  boys  to  do  this.  They  will  try  in  every  way,  they 
will  test  the  teacher,  or,  as  Professor  Parker  says,  "  they 
will  puncture  your  moral  anatomy  with  pins,  if  they 
find  that  there  is  an  opportunity."  A  teacher  can  estab- 
lish a  reputation  after  the  very  first  command  is  given 
to  a  class.  For  example,  she  directs  them  to  fall  in  in 
single  file.  They  take  their  places.  One  boy  is  late  ;  he 
dilly-dallies,  evidently  heard  the  command,  but  did  not 
obey  it.  This  is  the  time  for  the  teacher  to  act.  She 
promptly  calls  this  young  man  to  account,  and  in  such  a 
way  that  it  leaves  no  doubt  in  his  mind  or  in  the  minds 
of  the  class  about  her  intentions.  The  voice  need  not  be 
entirely  devoid  of  kindness,  but  it  must  be  positive. 
When  the  teacher  says  to  the  boys,  "  I  want  you  to  do  so 
and  so,"  that  must  settle  the  question. 

There  is  a  custom  adopted  by  some  teachers  of  calling 
to  the  platform  the  scholars  who  are  out  of  order.  Doing 
this  punishes  the  honest  ones,  while  the  dishonest  ones 
go  free.  Those  who  are  truthful  receive  punishment  as 
a  reward ;  those  who  lie  are  enabled  to  go  free  because 


100  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

of  their  falsehood.  Sending  from  the  room  is  a  method 
of  punishment  that  should  not  be  used  a  great  deal, 
although  sending  a  boy  home  from  the  gymnasium  will 
frequently  bring  good  results.  The  child  who  is  sent 
from  the  gymnasium  back  to  the  classroom  may  find 
time  to  make  up  some  study,  to  loiter  in  the  halls,  or  to 
play,  and  will  very  likely  present  his  own  case  to  his 
teacher,  who  will  not  have  the  time  or  inclination  to 
hear  the  instructor's  side  of  the  story.  Again,  every 
boy  who  is  sent  from  the  gymnasium  to  the  regular 
teacher  carries  additional  care  to  her.  The  instructor  in 
gymnastics  should  assume  all  this  responsibility,  and 
should  be  liable  for  the  government  of  her  own  classes. 
The  principal  of  one  school  was  in  the  habit  of  saying 
to  his  gymnastic  director,  "  If  your  pupils  are  out  of 
order,  send  them  at  once  to  their  classrooms,  and  the 
regular  teacher  will  remain  with  them  after  school." 
This  was  tried  a  few  times,  until  the  gymnastic  instruc- 
tor ascertained  that  he  was  creating  a  strong  feeling 
against  him,  because  he  compelled  other  teachers  to 
remain  after  school  to  punish  those  who  did  wrong  in 
the  gymnasium.  If  you  cannot  deal  with  or  punish 
your  own  pupils,  do  not  teach  gymnastics. 

It  is  not  necessary  in  this  chapter  to  discuss  the 
question  of  corporal  punishment.  In  my  own  experi- 
ence, I  have  never  had  to  "whip."  The  relations  be- 
tween myself  and  pupils  have  never  called  for  blows. 

There  is  a  subject  that  it  will  be  well  to  discuss  under 
this  heading,  namely,  sarcasm.  The  real  significance  of 
this  strong,  harsh  Greek  term  is  to  tear  the  flesh,  like 
dogs.  Caroline  B.  Le  Row  says:  "  By  easy  and  natural 


DISCIPLINE,   OB  SCHOOL  G.OVEHtfMENT.  101 

transfer,  this  becomes  identified  with  intellectual  and 
verbal  laceration  of  a  corresponding  character.  It  is  the 
expression  of  contempt,  anger,  jealousy,  bitterness,  dis- 
appointment, of  malice,  hardness,  and  all  uncharitable- 
ness,  in  language  more  or  less  disguised,  in  a  form  of 
words  which  in  letter  may  not  offend,  but  which  in  spirit 
are  as  objectionable  as  they  can  be  made.  The  relation 
of  the  teacher  to  the  pupil  is  that  of  youth  depending 
upon  maturity,  weakness  upon  strength,  awkwardness 
upon  skill,  inexperience  upon  expertness,  ignorance  upon 
wisdom.  Can  anything  be  more  revolting  than  for  this 
superiority  of  age  and  strength  and  experience  to  brow- 
beat youth,  weakness,  and  ignorance?"  A  sarcastic 
teacher  can  never  be  a  teacher  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
word.  She  lacks  that  element  which  is  found  in  every 
great  instructor  in  the  world,  kindness ;  and  although 
the  scholars  may  learn  and  make  some  progress,  never- 
theless there  is  between  the  teacher  and  the  pupil  a 
barrier  that  will  never  be  entirely  broken  down.  The 
teacher  is  heartily  disliked  by  the  scholars,  who  fear  her 
bitter  tongue.  There  are  times  when  certain  forms  of 
sarcasm  can  be  used.  There  is  in  every  class  a  mean  boy. 
To  him,  it  may  be  that  this  verbal  laceration  of  the 
flesh  will  bring  good  results.  But,  as  a  rule,  avoid  sar- 
casm, so  far  as  it  is  possible.  It  is  the  weapon  used  more 
by  the  young  teacher.  The  student  from  college,  who 
hears  a  great  deal  of  this  among  his  fellow  students,  is 
apt  to  use  the  same  weapon  when  he  takes  charge  of  a 
school.  Parents  are  frequently  too  sarcastic  when  cor- 
recting their  children.  It  is  neither  wise  nor  safe.  Cor- 
poral punishment  is  less  obnoxious  than  cutting  words 


•102  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

and  sarcasm.  Bodily  paiu  is  very  soon  forgotten,  but 
shaming  a  person  hurts  the  soul,  and  is  never  forgotten. 

A  few  years  ago  a  German  newspaper  contained  the 
statement  that  a  boy  had  committed  suicide  because  his 
teacher  called  him  a  thief.  He  took  an  apple  that 
belonged  to  another  boy.  Jean  Paul  Richter,  who  under- 
stood the  child,  said  :  "  What  is  to  be  followed  as  a  rule 
of  prudence,  yea,  of  justice,  toward  grown-up  people, 
should  be  much  more  observed  toward  children.  One 
should  never  say,  for  instance,  'You  are  a  liar,'  or  even, 
4  You  are  a  bad  boy,'  instead  of,  'You  have  told  an  un- 
truth,' or  '  You  have  done  wrong.'  "  Children  usually 
feel  when  they  have  committed  a  fault  without  being 
told,  and  certainly  they  do  not  wish  to  have  it,  as  the 
boys  say,  "ground  in."  If  it  is  necessary  to  say  some- 
thing, the  wrong  should  not  be  made  greater  than  it  is. 
Never  brand  a  culprit  with  an  opprobrious  name.  The 
teacher  should  be  very  careful  about  making  remarks 
that  will  hurt  the  feelings  of  pupils.  Edward  Eggleston 
says:  "The  test  of  a  teacher  is  efficiency,  not  only  in 
teaching,  but  in  her  dealings  with  others  ;  not  as  show- 
ing that  she  is  able  to  make  an  examination,  but  the 
final  result  she  can  produce  in  the  character  of  those 
who  come  from  under  her  hand.  This  efficiency  is  not 
of  the  sort  that  can  be  counted  upon  always  to  work  an 
increase  of  salary,  but  the  ability  to  leave  a  lasting  mark 
on  the  mind  and  character  of  the  pupil.  It  is  an  un- 
mistakable sign  of  a  real  teacher,  and  the  source  of  this 
power  lies,  not  in  the  teacher's  knowledge,  but  deeper, 
in  the  fiber  of  his  character." 

One  of  the  most  important  objects  of  school  discipline 


DISCIPLINE,  OB  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT.  103 

is  the  formation  of  the  habit  of  self-control.  The  power 
to  govern  well  is  an  essential  quality  of  every  successful 
teacher.  The  opinions  of  the  scholars  themselves  should 
be  used,  so  far  as  possible,  as  an  aid  to  the  teacher.  A  boy 
is  often  influenced  by  the  judgment  of  his  fellows  more 
than  by  the  decisions  of  the  teacher.  There  are,  in  every 
school,  college,  or  university,  leaders  in  right-doing,  and 
ring-leaders  in  wrong-doing.  The  teacher  should  capti- 
vate one  set,  and  the  capture  of  the  others  will  assist  in 
bringing  good  government.  Eternal  vigilance  is  the 
price  of  order  in  the  schoolroom.  The  teacher  should 
have  an  eye  like  a  hawk,  and  be  quick  to  detect  noise. 
"Disorder  is  the  sure  sequel  of  the  teacher's  failure  in 
sight  or  hearing ;  but  even  with  the  senses  good  there 
may  be  absent  the  watchful  employment  of  them.  This 
is,  in  itself,  a  natural  incapacity  for  the  work  of  teach- 
ing. A  teacher  must  not  merely  be  sensitive  to  in- 
cipient disorder ;  he  must  read  the  result  of  his  teaching 
in  the  eyes  of  his  pupils.  By  organization  and  arrange- 
ment, the  occasions  of  disorder  are  avoided.  The  reasons 
for  repressions  and  discipline  should,  so  far  as  possible,  be 
made  intelligible  to  those  concerned,  and  should  be  made 
referable  solely  to  the  general  good."  The  teacher  will  be 
able,  in  many  cases,  to  anticipate  disorder.  If,  from  ex- 
perience, she  knows  that  certain  movements  are  attended 
with  confusion,  she  can  ward  off  the  difficulty.  She 
should  encourage  truth  by  rewarding  full  and  frank  con- 
fessions with  a  remission  of  penalties,  so  far  as  consistent. 
Severity  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  deceit.  Prevention 
is  better  than  punishment.  Children  should  be  trained 
to  a  general  habit  of  prompt  obedience  in  minor  matters. 


104  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

Penalties  and  punishments  must  be  certain,  and  must 
seem  to  be  the  natural  consequence  of  wrong  action. 
Strong  terms  of  reproof  should  be  sparing,  in  order  to  be 
effective.  Still  more  sparing  ought  to  be  the  terms  of 
anger.  Do  not  make  cast-iron  rules,  with  unchangeable 
penalties.  There  can  be  no  government  where  there  is 
no  punishment.  Swett  says:  "The  chief  means  of 
preventing  the  necessity  of  punishment  are  active  and 
pleasant  employment,  the  personal  influence  of  the 
teacher,  the  public  opinion  of  the  scholars.  The  punish- 
ment must  be  varied  according  to  the  temperament  of 
the  child.  A  frown  will  act  on  one,  separation  from 
companions  on  another,  neglect  and  coldness  on  a  third, 
public  reprimand  on  a  fourth."  If  the  teacher  has  a 
case  that  calls  for  severe  punishment,  it  is  better  for  her 
to  consult  the  parents  before  taking  action. 

Discipline.  M.  Buisson  says :  "  There  should  never 
be  irony,  never  contradictions  and  paradoxes,  never 
anything  which  exalts  the  teacher  at  the  expense  of  the 
pupil ;  much  indulgence  and  no  trace  of  weakness ; 
nothing  exciting  or  brusque  ;  an  inflexible  firmness  and 
a  paternal  gentleness ;  inexhaustible  simplicity  in  all 
things  ;  finally,  a  constant  effort,  which  becomes  insen- 
sible in  the  course  of  time,  to  come  down  to  his  plane, 
to  understand  him,  to  sustain  him,  to  love  him." 

Obedience  is  one  of  the  important  things  for  a  child's 
character.  It  is  an  important  agent  in  the  development 
of  a  child,  and  will  result  from  good  teaching.  Many  of 
our  instructors  are  fatigued,  not  by  the  teaching  itself, 
but  by  the  enforcing  of  discipline. 

"  The  punishment  of  the  child  may  be  physical  or  it 


DISCIPLINE,   OB  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT.  105 

may  be  moral ;  moral  where  we  act  on  the  child's  nat- 
ural desire  for  love  and  affection,  physical  when  we  pun- 
ish him  by  denying  him  what  he  wants  or  giving  him 
what  he  does  not  desire." 

Contempt  is  a  strong  punishment.  Kant  says  :  "  The 
powers  of  the  mind  are  best  cultivated  when  we  do 
things  for  ourselves.  The  duties  of  a  child  toward  him- 
self are  cleanliness,  purity,  sobriety,  and  the  most  im- 
portant safeguard  of  all  is  the  possession  of  a  certain 
self-respect  which  he  values  beyond  everything  else." 
The  teacher  herself  can  learn  from  this  quotation.  There 
is  truth  in  the  maxim  that  the  teacher  who  has  not 
great  respect  for  herself  will  not  receive  it  from  others. 

A  characteristic  of  the  school  of  humanists,  which  in- 
cluded Locke,  Rabelais,  Basedow,  and  others,  is  their 
preference  of  kindness  to  severity,  and  their  condemna- 
tion of  the  cruelty  and  harshness  which  disfigured  the 
schools  of  the  Middle  Ages.  They  believed  that  the 
principal  method  of  compelling  the  attention  of  children 
and  inducing  them  to  learn  with  pleasure  was  preferable 
to  pain.  Locke  says  :  "  The  usual  lazy  and  short  way, 
by  chastisement  and  the  rod,  which  is  the  only  instru- 
ment of  government  that  teachers  generally  know  or 
ever  think  of,  is  the  most  unfit  of  any  to  be  used  in  edu- 
cation. I  cannot  think  that  any  correction  is  useful  to  a 
child  where  the  shame  of  suffering  for  having  done 
amiss  does  not  work  upon  him  more  than  the  pain. 
Such  a  sort  of  slavish  discipline  makes  a  slavish  temper. 
Beating  them,  and  all  other  sorts  of  slavish  and  corporal 
punishments,  are  not  a  discipline  fit  to  be  used  in  the 
education  of  those  we  would  have  wise,  good,  and  in- 


106  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

genuous  men,  therefore  very  rarely  to  be  applied,  and 
that  only  in  great  occasions  and  cases  of  extremity." 

If  a  child  tells  a  lie,  he  should  be  treated  with  con- 
tempt. Let  him  know  that  he  will  not  be  believed  in 
the  future  and  that  you  have  lost  your  faith  and  confi- 
dence in  him.  The  child  punished  when  he  misbehaves 
and  rewarded  when  he  does  well  acts,  not  for  the  good 
itself,  but  for  the  reward  which  he  may  receive. 

Montaigne  discountenanced  severe  discipline,  and  es- 
pecially corporal  chastisement.  He  says  :  "  This  edu- 
cation must  be  regulated  by  strict  mildness,  not  as  it  is 
now.  Instead  of  tempting  children  to  the  letters, 
nothing  is  shown  them  but  what  is  terrifying  and  cruel. 
Put  aside  violence  and  force.  There  is  nothing,  in  my 
mind,  which  so  degrades  and  stupefies  a  naturally  fine 
and  noble  disposition.  What  a  way  of  awakening  in 
the  tender  and  timorous  mind  of  children  an  aptitude 
for  learning,  to  lead  them  to  it  with  a  whip  in  hand  I 
Unrighteous  and  hurtful  system  ! " 

MISTAKES  IN  TEACHING. 

Many  of  the  following  are  from  different  authors  : 

It  is  a  mistake  to  confound  giving  information  or  evi- 
dence with  tale-bearing.  Wise  teachers  never  seek  occa- 
sion for  making  an  investigation  of  a  petty  nature. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  try  to  teach  without  good  order. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  confound  securing  order  with  main- 
taining order. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  try  to  startle  a  class  into  being  or- 
derly. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  call  for  order  in  general  terms,  how- 
ever quietly  it  may  be  done. 


DISCIPLINE,   OB  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT.  107 

It  is  a  mistake  to  scold  an  entire  class  for  the  fault 
of  one. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  call  to  the  platform  all  who  have 
been  out  of  order. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  be  demonstrative  in  maintaining  dis- 
cipline. One  teacher  secures  the  silent  cooperation  by 
the  natural  laws  of  good  organization,  careful  fore- 
thought, and  by  a  quiet  self-control. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  be  variable  in  discipline.  Confidence 
is  necessary  on  the  part  of  both  teacher  and  pupils.  A 
threat  implies  that  the  teacher  does  not  trust  the  pupils, 
and  prevents  the  class  from  having  sympathy  with  her. 
The  teacher  should  anticipate  the  movements  that  cause 
trouble,  and  forewarn  the  class.  The  boy  who  does  be- 
hind the  teacher's  back  what  he  will  not  do  to  her  face 
is  a  coward. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  make  too  many  rules.  Some  teach- 
ers make  so  many  that  they  cannot  remember  them 
themselves.  Their  pupils  forget  them,  too,  and  violate 
them  without  intending  any  wrong. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  make  rules  that  are  not  enforced. 
The  breaking  of  a  rule  should  be  considered  a  serious 
offense.  Pupils  who  are  old  enough  should  have  reasons 
for  rules  explained  to  them,  so  far  as  it  enables  them  to 
see  their  justness.  Indeed,  judicious  teachers  may  al- 
low their  scholars  to  assist  them  in  framing  rules. 

It  is  a'mistake  to  teach  too  much  in  a  single  lesson. 

The  teacher  cannot  furnish  rules  for  every  emergency, 
but  can  inculcate  principles  to  be  applied  when  the 
emergency  arises. 

Physical  exercises,  practiced  frequently,  save  time  by 


108  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

improving  the  discipline  and  preventing  irritation  to 
both  teacher  and  pupil. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  make  promises  and  not  keep  them. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  say  that  you  will  do,  and  then 
do  not. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  judge  before  hearing.  Hold  an 
angry  tongue,  and  think  before  speaking. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  give  gymnasium  work  as  punish- 
ment. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  allow  the  class  to  be  idle. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  pay  attention  to  the  bright  scholars 
in  the  class,  and  neglect  the  stupid  ones. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  talk  too  much. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  be  too  indefinite  in  teaching. 

The  teacher  should  not  stand  in  awe  of  her  pupils. 
She  should  never  sanction  tale-bearing. 

It  is  a  mistake  for  the  teacher  not  to  keep  a  record  of 
what  she  is  to  give. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  regard  knowledge  as  of  greater  im- 
portance than  the  child. 

It  is  a  mistake  not  to  let  children  know  that  suc- 
cess costs  something. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  confound  fame  with  reputation. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  complain  or  grumble  too  much.  If 
there  is  one  teacher  who,  more  than  any  other,  is  certain 
to  be  disliked  by  pupils,  parents,  trustees,  it  is  the  invet- 
erate grumbler.  She  would  dislike  herself  if  she  had 
the  honor  of  her  own  acquaintance.  She  does  not  know 
how  tiresome  this  habit  becomes.  No  teacher  who 
scolds  a  class  or  grumbles  can  ever  have  the  sympathy 
of  her  pupils,  and  without  it  she  can  never  control  them 


DISCIPLINE,    OB  SCHOOL.  GOVERNMENT.  109 

or  secure  their  best  efforts  in  their  school-work.  She 
who  recognizes,  appreciates,  and  judiciously  commends 
the  feeblest  efforts  of  her  pupils  will  be  certain,  by  this 
means,  to  induce  greater  zeal  and  earnestness. 

RELATIONS  OF  THE  TEACHER  TO  THE  PARENT. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  show  temper  in  dealing  with  a 
parent. 

It  is  a  mistake  not  to  hear  the  parent's  side  of  the 
story. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  express  opinions  too  freely  where  a 
child  has  done  wrong. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  dispute  with  an  angry  parent  before 
the  class  or  the  scholar. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  make  spiteful  remarks  before  the 
class  about  the  notes  received  from  parents. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  make  a  remark  that  will  insinuate 
that  the  parents  are  careless  in  the  rearing  of  their 
children. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  neglect  opportunities  for  arousing 
the  active  cooperation  of  parents  in  your  work. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  let  any  insinuation  made  about  you 
by  parents  go  unanswered. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  discuss  school  affairs  too  freely  with 
parents.  Remember  that  the  interest  of  the  parents  in 
the  school  is  in  proportion  to  the  love  they  have  for  their 
children. 

Rousseau,  in  his  advice  to  teachers,  says  :  "Teach  a 
little,  and  that  little  well."  Pestalozzi  says :  "  I  will 
put  the  education  of  the  child  into  the  hands  of  the 
mothers ;  I  will  transplant  it  from  the  school  to  the 
house.  But  how  can  a  mother  teach  what  she  does  not 


110  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

understand?"  This  rule  will  apply  well  to  the  intro- 
duction of  home  gymnastics.  The  teacher  should  en- 
deavor to  arouse  in  the  parents  enough  interest  in  the 
work  to  have  them  require  the  children  to  do  the  exer- 
cises morning  and  night,  just  as  they  would  care  for  the 
hair,  the  hands,  or  the  teeth.  But  parents  do  not  know 
the  exercises ;  they  think  they  have  done  their  whole 
duty  by  the  children  when  in  peremptory  language 
they  command  them  to  "stand  up  straight"  or  to 
"hold  the  head  up."  It  is  an  important  principle  in 
education  that  children  should  not  be  educated  for  their 
present  condition,  but  for  the  future  of  the  human  race  ; 
this  education  can  be  furthered  by  the  teaching  which  a 
child  will  receive  from  the  father  and  the  mother.  That 
parent  who  places  the  entire  responsibility  for  the  physi- 
cal, mental,  and  moral  education  of  children  upon 
teachers  is  making  a  serious  mistake. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ANALYSIS. — SYNTHESIS. — REFLEX  ACTS. 

THERE  are  two  related  methods  of  teaching,  known  as 
the  analytic  and  the  synthetic.  In  the  former  method 
analysis  is  used.  By  this  term  is  meant  the  breaking  up 
or  loosening  of  the  parts  that  make  the  whole — the  dis- 
secting, separating,  or  dissolving  of  the  elements.  An- 
alysis can  be  applied  to  any  complex  or  any  compound 
exercise. 

The  analytic  method  is  valuable,  and  should  be  used 
by  teachers  of  gymnastics.  G.  Stanley  Hall  is  of  the 
opinion  that  the  day  of  the  analytic  school  is  past,  and 
that  in  the  future  we  shall  deal  more  with  synthesis.  It 
has  been  found,  nevertheless,  that  analysis  of  gymnastic 
exercises  will  assist  teachers.  Illustration  :  Place  in  the 
hands  of  a  child  a  watch  ;  he  is  not  satisfied  until  he  has 
seen  the  "  wheels  go  'round."  Nor  is  this  sufficient ;  he 
is  anxious  to  take  the  watch  apart  to  see  how  it  is  made. 
When  this  is  done,  the  child  finds  the  various  parts  of 
the  mechanism ;  he  has  to  some  extent  analyzed  the 
watch.  An  instructor  when  teaching  writing  divides 
the  letters  into  straight  and  curved  lines.  The  child  is 
then  drilled  upon  the  parts.  But  before  he  can  put  them 
together  or  rearrange  the  elements,  he  has  been  taught 
to  make  them.  Reading  is  taught  by  words,  words  by 
letters  or  sounds.  Thus  we  go  from  the  whole  to  the 

in 


112  METHODS  OF  TEACHING   GYMNASTICS. 

part.  In  grammar,  the  sentence  is  subdivided  into  its 
parts,  its  parts  are  separated  into  smaller  divisions,  which 
are  finally  reduced  to  the  individual  portions  or  parts  of 
speech.  In  gymnastics,  take,  for  an  illustration,  this 
exercise,  which  consists  of  the  following  parts  of  the 
gymnastic  alphabet:  Turning  the  head  to  the  left, 
swinging  the  wand  to  the  front,  stepping  the  right  foot 
to  the  right.  This  is  the  exercise  as  a  whole,  and  is  seen 
in  the  illustration  (Fig.  5).  The  parts  are  :  first,  turn- 
ing the  head  to  the  left ;  second,  swinging  the  wand  to 
the  front ;  third,  stepping  the  right  foot  to  the  right. 
As  an  exercise  the  movements  cannot  be  well  joined 
until  they  have  been  thoroughly  learned  by  the  pupil, 
therefore  the  teacher  should  reduce  the  posture,  as  a 
whole,  to  its  simplest  movements,  and  teach  them. 
This  may  be  called  the  analytic  method. 

In  the  synthetic  method  of  gymnastics,  we  begin  with 
the  parts,  or  the  movements  of  the  alphabet,  and  pro- 
ceed to  the  complete  exercise,  or  the  whole.  At  times 
the  two  methods  are  so  nearly  alike  that  they  are  con- 
fusing. In  beginning  with  analysis  we  end  with  synthe- 
sis, and  in  beginning  with  synthesis  we  end  with 
analysis.  To  illustrate.  The  teacher  has  in  mind  an 
exercise  that  may  be  called  compound  ;  the  pupils  do  not 
know  what  this  is.  The  teacher  will  explain  each  part 
of  the  drill,  direct  the  scholars  to  take  them,  and  then, 
by  putting  all  together,  make  a  complete  whole.  As  in 
the  illustration,  the  instructor  will  first  drill  the  class  in 
the  stepping  motion  until  it  is  mastered,  then  the 
arm  movements,  finally  the  head  exercise.  This  may 
be  termed  synthesis. 


ANALYSIS. — SYNTHESIS. — REFLEX   ACTS.  113 

The  gymnastic  instructor  who  has  time  to  read  the 
various  works  on  methods  of  teaching  will  be  inter- 
ested in  the  inductive  and  deductive  methods  of  teach- 
ing. As  we  shall  not  use  these  terms,  we  shall  not  take 
the  space  to  describe  them  or  to  dwell  at  length  upon 
their  meaning. 

Automatic  Movements  and  Reflex  Action.  The  terms 
automatic  and  reflex  action  will  be  so  often  used  that  it 
is  necessary  to  explain  their  meanings  here.  The 
authorities  on  physiology  and  psychology  agree  that  the 
terms  overlap  each  other  to  such  a  degree  that  they  are 
almost  synonymous.  There  is  a  slight  difference  between 
the  terms,  but  it  is  so  slight  that  we  shall  not  make  a 
distinction  in  this  work. 

If  the  mind  were  occupied  with  every  movement  we 
make,  we  could  do  but  one  thing  at  a  time.  If  one 
started  out  for  a  walk  he  would  be  able  to  think  of 
nothing  but  how  to  take  the  steps;  he  could  therefore 
neither  talk  nor  observe.  If  one  tried  to  take  notes  at  a 
lecture  he  could  do  nothing  but  pay  attention  to  the 
writing,  if  this  was  in  charge  of  the  mind  itself. 
Women  can  both  sew  and  talk  at  the  same  time,  but  if 
it  happens  that  there  is  a  knot  in  the  thread,  they  will 
cease  talking  for  a  brief  period  until  the  knot  is  untied. 

Actions  which  are  repeated  many  times  are  referred 
back  to  a  nerve  or  spinal  center,  so  that  the  mind  itself 
can  be  used  for  other  duties.  In  walking,  we  are  un- 
conscious that  we  move  or  act,  because  the  walking  is 
looked  out  for  by  this  nerve  center.  If  we  have  learned 
to  walk  badly,  the  center  which  controls  this  movement 
does  not  worry  over  this,  but  it  sees  that  the  movement 


114  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

is  executed  as  it  has  been  learned.  Hence  the  necessity 
of  doing  well  whatever  we  do.  The  instructor  in  gym- 
nastics should  make  many  of  her  gymnastic  movements 
automatic,  in  order  that  the  mind  may  be  given  to  the 
control  or  the  teaching  of  the  class.  Every  person  who 
has  attempted ,  to  teach  an  exercise  that  has  not  been 
well  learned  knows  that,  by  dividing  the  attention 
between  the  movements  which  are  poorly  executed  and 
the  instruction  of  the  class,  both  will  suffer.  By  refer- 
ring to  any  good  work  on  physiology,  the  teacher  will  be 
able  to  study  and  learn  more  of  these  two  terms. 


CHAPTER   X. 

WHY   DO  WE   TEACH?— WHO  SHALL,  TEACH? 

LET  us  spend  a  few  minutes  upon  the  first  question, 
Why  do  we  teach  gymnastics?  The  answer  may  be 
given  in  a  few  words :  hecause  the  needs  of  the  pupil 
demand  it.  We  are  then  confronted  with  another  ques- 
tion, What  are  these  needs?  They  are:  (1)  better 
health  ;  (2)  greater  strength  of  body,  properly  distrib- 
uted ;  (3)  better  physiques ;  (4)  grace  of  movement ; 
(5)  self-control ;  (6)  self-reliance ;  (7)  nerve  and  brain 
training ;  (8)  memory  exercises ;  (9)  mental  rest ; 
(10)  recreation.  The  teacher  will  find,  by  referring  to 
the  German,  Swedish,  and  Delsarte  systems,  that  each 
claims  the  same  results.  Let  us  take  time  briefly  to  con- 
sider some  of  these  results. 

Better  health.  That  all  persons  wish  to  be  healthy'is 
a  fact.  That  all  persons  are  not  healthy  is  a  fact.  Of 
the  two  sexes,  more  women  are  sickly  than  men,  more 
doctors  make  good  incomes  by  treating  women  than  by 
treating  men.  There  is  a  reason  for  this.  Women  have 
neither  the  health  nor  the  strength  that  men  have,  and 
yet  no  one  will  deny  that  they  are  called  on  to  fulfill 
duties  that  require  both.  That  the  health  is  improved 
by  a  proper  course  in  gymnastic  drill  is  true. 

Greater  strength.  People  are  apt  to  confound  health 
and  strength.  The  terms  are  not  synonymous.  The 

115 


116  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

strength  of  the  body  is  not  proportionately  distributed. 
A  man  may  have  enormous  arms  and  chest,  powerful 
legs,  and  a  weak  waist.  The  strength  of  the  person  may 
be  compared  to  a  chain.  If  one  link  is  defective,  the 
whole  chain  is  weak.  So  in  the  body — unless  the  parts 
are  so  strengthened  that  one  will  assist  the  other,  the 
strength  is  not  what  it  might  be.  A  man  may  have 
great  strength  but  poor  health. 

It  is  astonishing  that  so  many  of  our  giants  die 
quickly.  Men  who  make  their  living  by  lifting  heavy 
weights,  wrestling,  and  boxing,  go  down  suddenly, 
many  of  them  dying  of  lung  trouble.  We  understand 
that  dissipation  has  much  to  do  with  their  sudden  de- 
mise. The  statement  is  made  to  show  that  the  enor- 
mous strengh  which  these  men  acquire  does  not  indicate 
perfect  health. 

Better  physiques.  We  admit  that  the  physique  is  im- 
proved by  physical  training,  but  we  have  not  yet  reached 
that  position  in  our  science  or  art  where  we  can  change 
it  to  any  great  extent,  unless  the  training  begins  with 
the  child  .and  is  permanently  continued.  The  boy  is 
apt  to  be  like  one  of  the  parents.  If  he  inherits  from 
the  mother  a  slender,  slight  physique,  he  is  liable  to  pos- 
sess it  always.  The  round-shouldered  youth,  or  one 
with  drooping  head,  does  not  often  get  rid  of  these  de- 
fects. Many  of  our  teachers  of  physical  training  do  not 
show  the  results  of  their  gymnastic  drill  in  their  per- 
sonal appearance. 

The  point  now  arises,  Does  any  method  of  physical 
training  that  is  advocated  to-day  produce  a  perfect 
physique?  The  answer  is,  No.  It  does  not  follow,  how- 


WHY  DO  WE  TEACH? — WHO  SHALL,  TEACH?       117 

ever,  that  the  body  is  not  bettered  by  a  system  of  rational 
gymnastics.  If  the  bone  growth  is  established,  it  will 
be  well-nigh  impossible  to  straighten  the  spine,  arch  the 
ches,t,  and  overcome  some  of  the  physical  defects.  Yet  \, 
it  is  true  that  the  muscular  system  is  invigorated,  the 
action  of  the  heart  strengthened,  the  capacity  of  the 
lungs  increased,  the  muscular  coats  of  the  arteries  and 
veins  improved,  and  the  whole  physical  condition  bet- 
tered ;  but  there  is  not  that  change  in  the  form  that  we 
look  and  hope  for. 

Or  ace  of  movement.  All  systems  claim  this  to  be  a 
resultant.  If  one  could  be  graceful  by  wishing,  he 
would  ask  it.  A  person  can  acquire  muscular  control, 
which  is  the  same  as  grace,  by  paying  attention  to 
rational  physical  training.  This  does  not  mean  entirely 
light  work  or  heavy  work,  but  a  wise  combination  of  the 
two.  Some  of  the  most  graceful  men  are  jugglers.  It 
is  seldom  that  we  meet  a  tumbler  who  is  not  easy  in  his 
movements,  while  many  of  the  bar  men  exhibit  this 
grace. 

Self-control  and  self-reliance.  While  these  are  not  the 
same,  yet  they  are  interlaced.  One  who  can  control 
himself  to  any  great  degree,  who  never  shows  emotion, 
who  is  calm  and  self-contained  in  the  face  of  danger, 
who  curbs  his  temper,  is  not  cast  down  by  grief,  checks 
an  angry  word — in  short,  who  can  manage  himself — 
exhibits  self-control.  All  emotion  is  expressed  by 
muscular  movement,  muscular  movement  is  controlled 
by  the  will.  The  control  of  the  muscles  by  the  will  is 
physical  training  of  a  certain  order,  it  is  physical  educa- 
tion of  the  highest  sense.  It  may  be  said  that  "  man  has 


118  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

never  taken  gymnastics  in  his  life  yet  he  never  loses  his 
self-control."  True,  but  he  has  practiced  this  special 
form  of  physical  education. 

Self-control  is  the  mastery  over  the  restless  muscles  of 
the  body.  It  is  essential  in  the  teacher.  She  is  called 
upon  every  hour  of  the  day  to  hold  herself  in  check. 

What  is  the  loss  of  self-control?  Visible  emotion. 
How  do  we  express  any  emotion  but  by  muscular  move- 
ment? Anger,  sadness,  joy,  fear,  jealousy  are  all  shown 
in  this  wajr.  When  we  are  suddenly  confronted  with 
unpleasant  news  our  muscles,  like  wild  horses,  at  once 
slip  from  our  control  and  we  show  by  the  face,  if  in  no 
other  way,  that  we  are  affected. 

The  teacher,  lawyer,  minister,  or  public  speaker  should 
rely  upon  himself,  should  have  confidence  in  his  own 
ability,  should  be  free  from  mannerisms,  affectations, 
should  have  a  good  presence,  strong  voice,  and  "  staying 
qualities." 

These  are  some  of  the  results  of  physical  training. 
Fortunate  it  is  for  us  that  the  results  of  such  an  educa- 
tion are  not  only  great  strength,  perfect  health,  and  a 
fine  physique. 

The  author  quotes  from  Prof.  Eugene  L.  Richards,  the 
director  of  the  Yale  Gymnasium  :  "  The  effect  of  exercise 
on  the  character  is  felt  most  of  all  on  the  will.  This  is 
very  natural,  for  in  all  muscular  exercise  a  certain 
amount  of  resistance  has  to  be  overcome,  and  the  power 
which  acts  through  the  muscles  to  overcome  this  resist- 
ance is  will  power.  Development  of  muscular  strength 
is,  therefore,  to  a  certain  extent  development  of 
will.  It  becomes  development  of  the  highest  kind  of 


WHY   DO   WE  TEACH?— WHO  SHALL  TEACH?       119 

will,  that  of  self-mastery,  when  to  take  exercise  a  man 
resolutely  overcomes  the  distaste  for  it." 

Mental  rest  and  recreation.  That  certain  forms  of 
gymnastics  will  rest  the  brain  and  that  children  and 
adults  find  recreation  in  games  and  contests  is  true,  but 
the  gymnastics  should  be  of  the  kind  that  do  not  require 
mental  effort  if  the  pupils  are  mentally  fatigued.  Do 
not  give  memory  exercises  to  persons  who  have  for  some 
time  used  the  brain.  They  can  take  simple  movements 
and  imitation  work,  and  find  pleasure  in  them  too.  A 
class  undergoing  a  long  examination  will  do  better  work 
if  required  to  take  a  few  arm  and  leg  motions  when  the 
time  is  half  over.  This  drill  rests  the  brain.  (See 
chapter  on  Swedish  day's  order.) 

Memory  exercises.  There  are  a  number  of  drills  that 
are  interesting  to  pupils  which  may  be  termed  memory 
exercises.  They  consist  of  exercises  not  shown  but  ex- 
plained. For  example,  the  teacher  describes  a  simple 
exercise  and  requests  the  pupils  to  execute  it  for  her. 
They  have  not  seen  it  but  they  will,  according  to  their 
idea  of  what  is  meant,  go  through  certain  motions. 

The  child  thinks  and  acts  according  to  the  muscular 
translation  of  its  thoughts,  and  draws  with  its  little 
body  the  picture  that  is  in  its  mind.  If  writing  or  draw- 
ing is  of  value  as  a  means  of  education  so  will  gymnas- 
tics be  if  taught  in  this  manner. 

Example  of  a  lesson  in  memory  work.  The  teacher 
says:  "  On  the  count  one  raise  the  arms  to  the  front, 
on  the  count  two  swing  them  out,  on  the  count  three 
slap  them  over  the  head,  on  the  count  four  lower  them 
to  the  side,  ready,  BEGIN." 


OF  TBTB 

UNIVERSITY 


120  METHODS  OF   TEACHING   GYMNASTICS. 

Again  the  teacher  may  bring  into  action  one  or  more 
sets  of  muscles  or  nerves  in  this  way.  The  first  exer- 
cise may  be  a  head  bending  to  the  right,  the  second  a  com- 
bination of  the  head  and  arm  movement,  while  the 
third  will  be  the  addition  of  a  leg  motion.  All  move- 
ments in  the  same  direction  are  easier  than  those  in  dif- 
ferent directions. 

Another  form  of  teaching  will  be  imitation,  which 
differs  from  the  memory  method.  Here  there  are  no 
commands,  as  the  child  is  obliged  to  look  at  the  teacher, 
then  imitate  her.  The  instructor  begins  by  taking  some 
simple  movement,  which  the  child  at  once  imitates. 
This  plan  will  teach  a  child  to  observe. 

In  drawing,  good  results  depend  upon  the  attention 
which  a  child  pays  to  detail,  so  in  imitation  work  the 
pupil  is  taught  to  look  carefully  and  to  place  its  own 
body  in  a  similar  position. 

Scholars  will  soon  learn  to  make  changes  very  rapidly. 
An  eminent  psychologist  favored  this  plan  of  teaching. 

Another  plan  often  used  is  for  the  teacher  to  read 
verses  and  let  the  children  imitate  the  person  or  things 
represented  in  the  poem. 

Round  work.  This  consists  in  giving  a  drill  in  gym- 
nastics after  the  plan  of  singing  a  round,  like  "  Three 
Blind  Mice." 

There  may  be  four  or  more  rows  of  scholars,  the  first 
of  which  begins  with  a  leg  exercise.  After  having  taken 
the  movement  eight  times  the  second  row  will  begin, 
and  so  on.  After  the  first  row  has  finished  its  leg  work 
it  will  take  a  drill  for  the  neck,  then  for  the  arms  and 
shoulders,  going  through  a  regular  lesson. 


WHY   DO  WE  TEACH?— WHO  SHALL,  TEACH?       121 

The  best  plan  is  for  the  teacher  to  give  the  lesson  as  a 
whole,  that  the  pupils  may  become  familiar  with  the  ex- 
ercises, then  to  start  the  first  row  in  the  manner  named. 

Who  should  teach  gymnastics?  The  answer  is, 
Only  that  one  who  is  competent.  Again,  Who  is  com- 
petent ?  A  good  gymnast  ?  No.  A  person  who  is  re- 
markably graceful?  No.  Neither  strength,  physique, 
nor  great  personal  beauty  makes  one  competent  to  teach 
gymnastics.  It  is  the  one  who  knows  how  to  teach. 
The  physique  may  be  poor,  both  health  and  strength 
may  be  lacking,  but  there  will  be  left  the  faculty  of  im- 
parting knowledge  to  others.  There  must  be  the  power 
and  example  of  enthusiasm,  which  makes  a  natural 
leader.  No  one  can  teach  gymnastics  who  is  not  in  some 
way  a  good  representative  of  the  work.  It  is  necessary 
to  understand  the  theory  and  practice  of  gymnastics 
and  to  have  mastered  bodily  exercises. 


CHAPTEE  XI. 

OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON  PARTS  OF  THE  BODY. 

THE  outline  lessons  on  the  parts  of  the  human  body 
are  intended  to  assist  the  teacher,  both  in  speaking  and 
teaching.  The  young  men  or  women  who  are  engaged 
as  instructors  in  normal  schools  should  not  only  be  able 
to  give  instructions  in  gymnastics,  but  they  should  be 
able  to  prepare  for  their  teachers  short  talks  upon  the 
reasons  why  exercises  are  given.  There  will  not  be,  in 
this  book,  sufficient  space  to  dwell  at  length  upon  the 
various  portions  of  the  body,  but  the  teacher  who  is 
anxious  to  know  more  of  this  work  can,  by  referring  to 
Public  School  Syllabus,*  prepare  her  talks,  basing  them 
upon  the  outlines  found  under  the  different  headings.  The 
author  has  dwelt  at  length  upon  the  arms,  the  shoulders, 
and  the  thorax.  The  articles  on  the  neck  and  legs  can 
be  filled  out  by  the  teachers  themselves.  Such  a  plan  as 
this  would  be  called  the  "skeleton "  of  a  lecture. 

OUTLINES  OF  LESSONS  ON  PARTS  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY* 

THE   HEAD. 

Subject :  Head  and  neck. 
Definition. 


*"  Syllabus  of  Gymnastics,"  Anderson. 
122 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON   PARTS  OF  THE  BODY.         123 

Normal  position.     (See  position  of  a  soldier,  page  183.) 
Defects  : 

(1)  Drooping. 

(2)  Carried  on  one  side. 

(3)  Chin  elevated  or  protruding. 

(4)  Wryneck. 

Results  of  these  defects  on  the  shoulders  and  thorax. 
Treatment : 

Drooping  head.    Cause.     Bending,  turning,  forc- 
ing, rolling. 

Head  carried  on  one  side.    Cause.    Bending,  turn- 
ing. 
Elevated  chin.   Cause.   Bending,  forcing.     Normal 

position. 
Head  thrust  forward.    Cause.     Forcing.    Normal 

position. 

Wry  neck.    Surgical  treatment. 
Results  of  treatment  on 

(1)  Position  of  the  head. 

(2)  Muscles  of  the  neck. 

(3)  Fat  or  thin  necks. 

(4)  Nerves  of  the  neck. 

(5)  Circulation  and  dizziness. 

(6)  Headache. 

(7)  Secondary  effects  on  thorax  and  shoulders. 
^Esthetic.    Nine  realms,  and  meanings. 

The  alphabet :  bending,  turning,  rolling,  and  forcing. 
Important  rules  to  members  in  treating  defects : 

1st.    Remove  the  cause. 

2d.     Bring  the  part  to  its  normal  position. 

THE  LEGS. 

Definition :  Thigh,  leg,  knee,  ankle,  foot. 
Thigh:  Divisions  :  Front,  back,  out  and  inside. 
Defects  :  Inner  and  back  thigh  not  well  developed. 
Cause  :  Lack  of  training. 
Results : 


124  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

Treatment : 

(1)  Front  :  lower  body  ;  jump  ;  run. 

(2)  Biceps  :  flex  leg  ;  raise  heels  in  a  run. 

(3)  Inside  :  cross  legs. 

(4)  Outside:  Take  1,  2,  3. 

Legs:  Parts,  front  and  back.  Better  developed  than 
thigh. 

Defects :  Small  back. 
Cause :  Lack  of  exercise. 
Results :  General  weakness. 
Treatment : 

(1)  Back  :  Raise  on  toes.     Running  and  jumping. 

(2)  Front:  Raise  the  toes.     Fast  walking. 
Knees:  Definition.     Defects.    Treatment. 
Ankle:  Definition.     Defects.     Cause.     Treatment. 
The  foot  and  toes. 

The  hips:  Jumpers,  wrestlers,  horseback  riders. 

Compare  the  results  of  arm  and  leg  work  on  circulation 
and  respiration.  Leg  work  produces  better  effects  on 
brain  congestion. 

Alphabet:  step,  charge,  hop,  run,  swing,   sway,   ex- 
tend, flex,  rotate. 
i 

THE  ARMS. 

Definition  and  division.  Names  of  bones  of  arm  (not 
wrist). 

(1)  Deltoid. 

(2)  Upper  arm,  front  and  back. 

(3)  forearm,  front  and  back. 
Wrist,  hand,  fingers. 

Defects  :  Forearm  better  developed  than  the  upper  in 
proportion. 

Cause :  Lack  of  exercise,  over-development  of  certain 
parts. 

Treatment : 

(1)  Front  upper  :  flex  forearm  ;  rotate  forearm. 

(2)  Back  upper :  thrust  arm  in  any  direction. 


OF  THK 

UNIVERSITY 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON  PARTS  OF  THE  BODY.         125 

(3)  Front  forearm :  flex  hand  and  fingers  ;  twist 

forearm. 

(4)  Back  forearm:  extend  hand  ;  extend  fingers. 

(5)  Wrist:   by  all-hand   motions;    rotation  and 

four  bending  motions. 

(6)  Hand:    flex   and   extend  fingers;    Delsarte 

hand-shaking;  separate  fi  ngers  ;  fold  fingers. 
Use  in  cramp,  paralysis,  etc. 
Effect  of  treatment  on 

(1)  Circulation. 

(2)  Cold  hands. 

(3)  Respiration. 

(4)  Headache. 

(5)  Nerves. 

Terms  of  alphabet :  flex,  rotate,  thrust,  twist,  extend, 
separate,  shaking. 

THE  ABM. 

Free  gymnastics  do  not,  noticeably,  increase  the  size 
of  the  muscles  or  bring  great  strengh.  They  add  some- 
what to  the  symmetry  of  the  arm,  however.  Pupils 
notice  this,  and  consequently  do  not  care  much  for  such 
movements  as  flexing,  extending,  swinging,  or  circling 
the  arm,  or  opening  and  closing  the  hand.  Nevertheless,  it 
does  not  follow  that  because  these  exercises  do  not  pro- 
duce apparent  results,  we  should  eliminate  them  from 
our  list.  Strength  is  not  the  only  result  of  physical 
training.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  development  of  the 
muscles  of  the  arm.  True,  the  hand,  fingers,  and  fore- 
arm can  be  strengthened  and  developed,  and  in  a  very 
short  time  can  be  tired  out,  by  free  hand  movements, 
but  the  biceps  and  the  triceps  are  not  exhausted  so 
quickly.  It  is  advisable,  therefore,  for  the  teacher  to 
give  special  lessons  for  the  development  of  the  arms, 


126  METHODS  OF  TEACHING   GYMNASTICS. 

using  either  the  one-pound,  wooden  dumb  bells  a  great 
number  of  times  or  the  light  iron  dumb  bells  a  few 
times. 

It  neither  requires  a  thorough  knowledge  of  anatomy 
to  develop  the  muscles  of  the  arms  nor  calls  for  much 
time  to  learn  the  specific  exercises. 

While  we  may  urge  our  men  to  take  certain  prelimi- 
nary exercises  before  developing  the  arm,  we  cannot 
compel  them  to  do  it.  They  will  do  about  as  they  please, 
for  physical  education  is  not,  like  many  other  depart- 
ments of  education,  compulsory.  No  harm  will  result 
if  they  begin  the  lesson  with  arm  work.  What  is  said 
about  the  development  of  the  arm  will  apply  with  equal 
truth  to  the  development  of  the  muscles  of  the  leg  and 
thigh. 

Let  us  study  this  wonderful  part  of  the  human  body, 
the  arm.  The  teacher  knows  the  anatomical  names  of 
these  bones,  but  at  the  start  had  better  not  say  to  a  child 
that  this  bone  is  the  radius,  or  that  such  and  such  a 
bone  is  the  semi-lunar  or  the  scaphoid  bone.  Atten- 
tion is  called  to  the  divisions  of  the  arm,  as  we  shall 
treat  them ;  first,  the  upper  arm,  which  is  sub- 
divided into  the  front  and  the  back.  These  are  the  parts 
of  the  upper  arm  to  which  we  pay  most  attention  in  our 
general  classes.  Then  comes  the  forearm,  which  is  also 
subdivided  into  the  front  and  the  back.  Passing  from 
that  part  we  come  to  the  wrist,  then  the  hand  proper, 
and  finally  the  fingers. 

In  developing  the  arm,  pay  more  attention  to  the  up- 
per than  to  the  forearm,  for  this  reason  :  the  forearm  is 
usually  better  developed  in  proportion,  because  the  hand 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON   PARTS  OF  THE  BODY.         127 

and  the  fingers  are  used  so  frequently.  If  you  wish  to 
strengthen  some  part  of  the  arm,  the  question  arises, 
What  exercise  shall  we  give  for  developing  the  muscles? 
The  teacher  who  understands  the  principles  for  develop- 
ing the  parts  of  the  body  can  apply  them  to  the  chest 
weights  as  well  as  to  the  special  developing  appliances. 
Let  us  take  the  upper  arm.  On  the  front  part  is  the 
muscle  called  the  biceps — the  best-known  muscle  in  the 
human  body.  Nearly  every  boy  is  familiar  with  it.  He 
cares  nothing  for  the  origin  and  insertion  of  that  muscle, 
but  the  teacher  should.  He  knows,  perhaps,  that  a  cer- 
tain exercise  will  develop  the  biceps  ;  and  if  he  does  not 
know  it  he  wishes  that  he  did,  and  that  he  had  a  large 
muscle  there.  The  two  exercises  for  this  part  of  the 
body  are :  first,  flexing  the  forearm,  second,  with  the 
arm  partly  flexed,  rotating  the  forearm.  Ask  the  boy 
to  place  his  hand  upon  the  biceps,  then  flex  and  rotate 
the  forearm,  that  he  may  feel  the  muscle  contract.  It  is 
an  object  lesson  to  him.  He  is  also  interested  to  know 
why  a  screw  turns  to  the  right  and  not  to  the  left — why 
we  can  use  more  force  in  turning  the  hand  in  one  di- 
rection than  in  the  other ;  because  the  long,  strong 
muscle  on  the  upper  arm  helps  to  turn  the  right  hand 
to  the  right. 

Pass  to  the  back  of  the  upper  arm,  to  what  is  called 
the  triceps.  If  the  child  knows  so  well  what  the  bicep 
muscle  is,  it  is  not  harder  for  him  to  learn  what  the  tri- 
ceps is  a-nd  where  it  is  found.  The  chief  exercise  is  the 
extension  of  the  forearm.  This  muscle  will  push  the 
hand  away  from  the  shoulder,  or  it  will  push  the  shoul- 
der away  from  the  hand.  If,  holding  in  the  hand  a 


128  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

dumb  bell,  we  push  it  up,  out,  or  front,  the  triceps  is 
one  of  the  muscles  that  do  the  work.  Other  muscles 
are  always  used  ;  it  is  impossible  to  develop  one  particu- 
lar muscle  in  the  human  body,  but  one  muscle  can  get 
the  greater  part  of  the  work  and  thus  be  strengthened. 

Take  next  the  deltoid,  the  "  round-of-the-shoulder." 
Teachers  of  gymnastics  should  study  this  portion  of  the 
arm.  The  movement  that  develops  this  beautiful  muscle 
is  swinging  the  arm  shoulder  high,  when  its  action 
stops.  The  arm  is  raised  from  the  horizontal  by  the 
muscles  which  rotate  the  scapula,  or  the  shoulder  blade. 
In  drawing  the  arm  forward  shoulder  high,  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  deltoid  is  called  into  action. 

The  forearm  is  subdivided  into  the  front  and  back. 
The  movement  in  free  gymnastics  for  developing  the  front 
forearm  is  the  flexing  of  the  hand  or  the  closing  of  the 
fingers.  The  exercise  for  the  back  forearm  and  for  the  back 
of  the  hand  is  the  extension  of  the  hand  and  fingers.  A 
third  exercise  for  the  muscles  of  the  forearm  is  twisting  the 
hand  from  right  to  left.  Although  the  biceps  acts,  it  is 
assisted  by  muscles  in  the  forearm,  termed  "pronators" 
and  "supinators." 

The  wrist  is  strengthened  and  developed  by  the  move- 
ments of  the  hand  and  the  forearm.  The  extension  and 
flexion,  the  abduction,  adduction,  and  circumduction  of 
the  hand,  are  all  good  for  the  wrist. 

Arm  exercises  are  helpful  in  certain  forms  of  head- 
ache, especially  those  due  to  temporary  cerebral  conges- 
tion resulting  from  study  or  too  close  mental  application. 
These  movements  draw  the  blood  from  the  brain  to  the 
upper  extremities.  It  has  been  said  by  some  teachers 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON   PARTS  OF  THE  BODY.         129 

that  they  are  able  to  remedy  the  pain  in  the  head  by  the 
hand-shaking  movements  used  in  Delsarte  gymnastics. 
We  have  found  from  experience  that  it  is  well  to  relieve 
cerebral  pressure  by  arm  or  leg  exercises.  If  it  happens 
that  the  leg  movements  cannot  be  given  in  the  school- 
room, use  the  arms.  During  continued  mental  effort  the 
scholars  should  frequently  be  given  exercises  that  will 
bring  into  action  the  muscles  of  the  extremities. 

There  are,  in  all  of  our  classes,  pupils  who  suffer  from 
cold  hands  and  cold  feet.  One  cause  of  this  is  the  poor 
circulation  through  the  parts.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary, 
to  strengthen  the  action  of  the  heart  and  increase  the 
lung  capacity,  to  overcome  this  defect.  At  the  same 
time,  the  circulation  must  be  quickened  through  the 
parts  themselves.  The  exercises  for  the  hands  and  arms 
will  tend  to  overcome  this  unfavorable  condition. 

People  who  have  small  arms,  and  who  do  not  show  the 
results  of  their  gymnastic  training  in  large  measure- 
ments of  this  portion  of  the  body,  may  find  some  conso- 
lation in  the  fact  that  the  exercises  develop  the  nerves. 
The  musician  has  not,  as  a  rule,  a  very  large  forearm. 
The  muscles  are  well  developed,  elastic,  and  respond 
quickly  to  a  stimulus  sent  to  them.  The  nerves  are  in 
excellent  condition,  and  it  is  here  that  we  see  the  results 
of  the  training.  It  has  been  said  before  that  muscles 
need  not  be  large  to  be  strong.  If  there  is,  back  of  a  fair 
muscular  condition,  a  great  deal  of  nervous  energy  and 
will  power,  the  muscles  will  do  the  work. 

The  teachers  of  elocution  in  our  colleges  and  secondary 
schools  complain  of  the  awkwardness  of  their  pupils  in 
making  gestures,  or  in  expressing  emotions  by  the  body. 


130  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

The  small  boy,  speaking  his  piece  from  a  platform  in  the 
school,  considers  that  he  has  accomplished  quite  a  feat  if 
he  swings  his  arm  forward  or  to  the  right  or  left,  in  his 
effort  to  make  a  gesture.  The  instructor  in  gymnastics 
will  be  able  to  assist  the  teacher  of  elocution  if  she  will 
drill  the  scholars  in  certain  arm  and  shoulder  move- 
ments when  in  the  gymnasium.  The  swinging  of  the 
arm  to  the  front,  from  this  position  out,  then  down,  or 
swinging  the  arm  up,  out,  and  down,  will  very  soon  pro- 
duce greater  freedom  of  movement  at  the  shoulder  joint. 
The  angles  can  soon  be  turned  into  curves,  so  that,  by 
constant  practice,  the  child  will  be  enabled,  by  use  of  the 
arms,  shoulders,  head,  and  body,  to  make  gestures  and 
to  express  his  emotions  when  speaking. 

The  child  who  begins  the  five-finger  exercises  on  the 
piano  will  soon  be  able  to  play  octaves,  the  chords,  .and 
the  most  difficult  pieces ;  but  we  do  not  find,  as  the  child 
grows  older  and  continues  his  practice,  that  there  is  a 
great  increase  in  the  size  of  the  muscle.  The  quality,  if 
not  the  quantity,  is  there. 

THE  SHOULDERS. 

Definition  and  anatomy.  Technical  and  common 
names. 

Capable  of  all  motions. 
Defects : 

(1)  Round. 

(2)  Uneven. 

(3)  Stooped. 

(4)  Sloping. 

Results  of  these  defects  on  the  thorax  and  health. 
Theory  of  treatment.    See  rules  under  "  The  Head." 
Treatment  by  primary  and  secondary  exercises. 
Round  shoulders.    Cause.    Treatment. 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON   PARTS  OF  THE  BODY.        131 

Primary  : 

(1)  Force. 

(2)  Elevate  or  raise. 

(3)  Depress  or  lower. 

(4)  Roll. 
Secondary  : 

(1)  Setting  up  exercises. 

(2)  Circling  motion  backward  with  arms. 

(3)  Attitudes,  good.    Hips  firm.    Neck  firm.    Let- 

ter "Y."    Attention. 

(4)  Attitudes,  bad.     Arms  folded.    Incorrect  sit- 

ting, standing,  or  lying  positions. 

Stooped  shoulders  is  a  defect  in  the  spine,  and  will  be 
treated  under  the  heading  "  Spine." 
Uneven  shoulders.    Cause.    Treatment. 

To  elevate,  shrug  or  elevate  the  lower  shoulder  as 

a  primary  motion. 
Secondary  : 

Arm  swinging  out  or  up  ;  arm  thrusting  up  ;  head 

bending  to  high  side. 

To  lower  a  shoulder,  thrust  arm  down  ;  force  shoulder 
down. 

Bottle  neck,  or  sloping.    Cause. 
General  rules  for  treatment : 

(1)  Widen  and  deepen  chest. 

(2)  Build  up  neck  muscles. 

(3)  Elevate  shoulders. 

Secondary  effects  of  the  shoulder  work  is  to  widen  and 
deepen  the  thorax. 
Results  on  respiration. 
^Esthetic  work. 

Value  of  shoulder  work  in  elocution. 

Shoulder,  the  thermometer  of  the  feelings. 

Combination  of  shoulder  and  head  motions. 
Terms  of  the  alphabet  used :  raise,  lower,  force,  roll, 
circling,  swinging,  thrusting. 
It  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  drooping  heads  or 


132  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

round  shoulders  are  the  more  common.  We  know  there 
are  too  many  of  each.  As  a  rule,  the  attention  of 
parents  is  attracted  to  round  shoulders  sooner  than  to 
a  drooping  head.  The  teacher  of  gymnastics  will  have 
more  requests  from  parents  for  exercises  to  remedy  round 
shoulders  than  for  those  which  affect  the  position  of  the 
head.  Of  the  two,  the  defective  shoulder  is  the  more 
serious,  because  it  aflfects  directly  the  diameters  of  the 
thorax. 

The  anatomy  of  the  shoulder  joint  is  simple.  It  is 
composed  of  three  bones,  the  scapula,  clavicle,  and 
humerus ;  or,  in  ordinary  language,  the  shoulder  blade, 
the  collar  bone,  and  upper  arm.  (It  may  be  well  to  state 
here  that  it  is  not  wise  for  a  teacher  to  use  technical 
terms  too  frequently  before  a  class.  It  may  awe  the 
children  for  a  short  time,  but  with  adults  it  generally 
produces  a  feeling  of  disgust ;  it  seems  to  older  pupils  as 
if  the  teacher  were  trying  to  "air"  her  knowledge— to 
show  her  superior  wisdom  by  using  phrases  unintelligible 
to  them.) 

The  shoulder  joint  is  capable  of  nearly  every  motion. 
It  can  be  raised  or  lowered,  thrust  forward  or  back, 
rolled,  adducted,  or  abducted.  The  peculiarity  of  the 
shoulder  blade  is  that  it  is  practically  suspended.  This 
being  the  case,  it  is  plain  that  if  one  set  of  muscles  is 
over-developed,  it  will  draw  the  shoulder  in  their  pulling 
direction.  To  illustrate :  if  the  large  pectoral  muscles, 
which  connect  the  shoulder  with  the  breast-bone,  are 
stronger  than  the  muscles  on  the  back,  the  shoulder  will 
be  drawn  forward,  producing  the  common  defect  of 
round  shoulders.  For  similar  reasons,  one  shoulder  may 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON  PARTS  OF  THE  BODY.        133 

be  higher  than  the  other,  or  the  spine  itself  may  be 
drawn  slightly  forward  in  the  region  of  the  shoulders, 
producing  what  is  called  "  stooped  shoulders." 

Let  us  consider  the  first  of  these  defects,  round 
shoulders.  This  is  due  to  over-development  of  the  mus- 
cles of  the  front  upper  thorax,  to  posture,  or  to  occupa- 
tion. The  scholar  who  sits  with  arms  resting  on  the 
desk,  or  lies  in  bed  in  such  a  position  as  to  draw  the 
shoulders  forward,  is  producing  this  defect.  The  result 
is  that  the  chest  is  flattened  and  the  appearance  of  the 
shoulders  changed.  Any  movements  or  postures  that 
shorten  the  diameters  of  the  thorax  should  be  avoided, 
because  the  free  action  of  the  heart  and  lungs  must 
never  be  impeded. 

In  treating  this  defect,  the  general  rule  is  to  bring  the 
shoulders  to  their  proper  position.  This  in  itself  is  the 
most  important  of  the  primary  exercises.  All  secondary 
exercises  are  taken  with  the  arms,  head,  and  trunk.  In 
the  case  of  round  shoulders,  the  first  primary  exercise 
would  be  to  draw  the  shoulders  back,  the  second  would 
be  to  arch  the  chest,  the  third  to  touch  the  inner  borders 
of  the  scapula,  the  fourth  to  roll  the  shoulders  back, 
emphasizing  the  backward  but  not  the  forward  motion. 
Under  the  secondary  exercises  we  would  enumerate  the 
"setting  up  exercises,"  or  any  movement  with  the  arms 
that  will  tend  to  bring  the  scapula  to  the  normal 
position. 

Uneven  shoulders  are  caused  by  the  over-development 
of  muscles  on  one  side  of  the  body,  by  posture,  or  by 
occupation.  Right-handed  people  are  stronger  on  the 
right  side  of  the'body  than  on  the  left.  In  nearly  every 


134  METHODS  OF  TEACHING   GYMNASTICS. 

case  examined  the  left  shoulder  is  higher  than  the  right. 
Pupils  who  carry  books  on  the  right  arm,  or  who  stand 
with  one  hip  higher  than  the  other,  are  apt  to  show  this 
defect. 

The  general  plan  of  treatment  is  simple  ;  if  the  shoulder 
is  too  low,  raise  it,  if  too  high,  lower  it.  These  are  pri- 
mary exercises.  Thrusting  the  flexed  arm  up  and  swing- 
ing the  arm  up  are  secondary  exercises.  A  good  combi- 
nation would  be  to  flex  both  arms,  and  from  this  position 
thrust  one  hand  up  and  the  other  down. 

In  the  case  of  a  bottle-necked  pupil,  the  shoulder  treat- 
ment is  of  less  importance  than  the  treatment  of  the 
thorax. 

Stooped  shoulders  will  be  considered  under  the  heading 
of  the  spine,  as  this  defect  is  due  to  a  curve  in  the  verte- 
bral column.  It  is  much  more  difficult  to  cure  for  this 
reason. 

The  effect  of  these  exercises  upon  the  thorax,  as  has 
been  stated,  is  to  widen  and  deepen  it.  The  circulation 
and  respiration  are  therefore  benefited.  Widening  and 
deepening  the  thorax  will  of  course  increase  the  size  of 
the  abdominal  cavity,  thus  shoulder  exercises  aid,  in- 
directly, digestion. 

The  above  brief  description  of  the  shoulders  will  give 
the  teacher  some  idea  of  the  plan  used  by  the  author  in 
filling  out  a  skeleton  lecture. 

THE  THORAX  AND  ITS  CONTENTS. 

Thorax— Definition.    Anatomy.     Contents. 
What  constitutes  a  normal  thorax  ? 
Defective  thorax  :  Uneven,  short  diameters. 
Cause :  Dress,  position,  pressure,  lack  of  exercise. 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON  PARTS  OF  THE  BODY.        186 

Results  of  defects  on 

Lungs,  heart,  waist. 
Treatment : 

(1)  By  external  and  internal  development. 

(2)  Of  heart. 

(3)  Of  lungs. 

The  external  treatment  is  to  widen  and  deepen. 
To  widen  :    Primary  : 

"Sternum  expression." 
Force  back  abdomen. 
Secondary  : 
Shrug  shoulders. 
Swing  arm  sidewise. 
Bend  body  to  right  and  left. 
Bend    body  to   right   and    left,  neck 

firm. 

Bend  body,  arms  (1  or  2)  up. 
Letter  "Y." 
To  deepen :  Primary  : 

"Sternum  expression." 
Secondary  : 
Bend  back  head. 
Bend  body  back  and  to  oblique. 
Swing  arms  front  and  up. 
Letter  "  Y  "  and  back  bend. 
Hips  firm  and  forward  bend. 
Terras  of  alphabet :  force,  shrug,  swing,  bend. 

THORAX— BREATHING. 

The  lungs. 
Definition. 

Importance  of  exercise. 
Exercise  for  lungs : 

Why  do  we  breathe  ? 

How  do  we  breathe? 
Defects  : 

Lungs  partly  filled. 


136  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

Kinds : 

Diaphragmatic. 

Intercostal. 

Abdominal. 

Chest. 

What  muscles  are  used  in  breathing? 
Two  parts  of  breathing :  inhaling  and  exhaling. 
Normal  breathing.    See  a  child. 

Abnormal  breathing.   When  it  begins.   Corset.   Dress. 
Breathing  of  civilized  men  and  women  and  of  Indian 
women.    See  Kirke's  ' '  Physiology. ' ' 
Treatment :  inhaling  is  primary. 
Secondary : 

(1)  Combine  with  head  bending. 

(2)  Arm  motions  to  side  and  front. 

(3)  Inhale  and  arm  forcing.    Percussing. 

(4)  Shrug  and  force  shoulders. 

(5)  Trunk  bending. 

(6)  Exercises  for  one  side. 
Which  deepen  or  widen  ? 
Leg  vs.  arm  work. 

Describe  the  action  of  the  lungs  when  one  is  asleep, 
sitting,  standing,  running. 

Breathing  in  Ling  laws.  Why  begin  slowly.  Simple 
breathing  for  children.  Whistle,  sing,  hiss.  Breath- 
lessness  vs.  fatigue.  Effects  of  breathing  on  circulation. 
Keflex  action  in  speaking,  fear,  anger.  School  venti- 
lation. 

Terms  of  alphabet :  breathing,  percussing,  shrugging, 
bending,  forcing. 

Any  good  work  on  anatomy  will  assist  the  teacher  in 
studying  the  formation  of  the  thorax,  while  the  various 
works  on  physiology  will  tell  of  the  action  of  the 
muscles  and  the  functions  of  the  organs  in  this  portion 
of  the  body.  It  is  not  our  intention  to  describe  the 
anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  parts,  but  to  give  the 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON   PARTS  OF  THE  BODY.         137 

teacher  a  few  suggestions  for  the  development  of  this 
very  important  portion  of  the  body. 

By  the  thorax,  we  refer  to  that  bony,  cartilaginous 
cage  which  is  bounded  in  front  by  the  sternum  and  the 
ribs,  on  the  sides  by  the  ribs,  at  the  back  by  the  spinal 
column  and  the  ribs,  and  at  its  base  by  the  diaphragm. 
The  portions  of  the  body  found  in  the  thorax  are  the 
heart  arid  lungs,  with  their  appendages.  These  organs 
are  directly  affected  by  physical  training,  and  suffer 
from  a  lack  of  care. 

It  is  not  easy  to  answer  the  question,  "What  consti- 
tutes a  normal  thorax?"  There  are  certain  measure- 
ments that  will  be  of  service,  if  we  depended  upon  figures. 
There  is  not  so  much  data  for  children.  We  should  ex- 
pect to  find  a  healthy  thorax  in  a  healthy  child.  The 
diameters  from  front  to  rear,  and  from  right  to  left,  are 
not  shortened  too  much.  It  may  be  that  the  upper  por- 
tion of  this  cage  is  too  small,  in  which  case  we  should 
endeavor  to  widen  and  deepen  that  part.  We  are  not 
liable  to  make  a  mistake  in  widening  and  deepening  the 
thorax  to  too  great  an  extent. 

There  are  certain  gymnastic  movements  that  will  de- 
velop the  chest,  but  before  any  defect  can  be  remedied 
we  must,  if  possible,  ascertain  its  cause  and  remove  it. 
Any  other  course  would  be  as  absurd  as  for  a  person  to 
hold  in  the  hand  a  hot  coal  and  try  to  remedy  the  effects 
without  removing  the  heat.  If  the  defective  thorax  is 
caused  by  improper  dress,  change  it.  If  it  is  the  result  of 
a  bad  standing  position,  correct  the  position.  If  it  is  due 
to  pressure— by  this  we  mean  the  leaning  against  a  desk, 
or  the  occupation  of  the  person,  carrying  weights,  etc.- 


138  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

remove  the  pressure.  If  the  diameters  are  shortened  be- 
cause of  weakened  muscles,  and  the  muscles  are  weakened 
through  lack  of  exercise,  give  the  child  gymnastics. 
The  results  of  the  defects  in  the  thorax  are  shown  in 
the  action  of  the  lungs,  heart,  and  the  abdominal  organs. 
If  the  heart  has  not  ample  space,  it  cannot  perform  its 
functions.  If  the  lungs  are  crowded,  they  cannot  aerate 
the  blood.  If  the  lower  diameters  of  the  thorax  are 
small  the  waist  will  be  the  same,  hence  there  is  not  room 
for  the  action  of  the  organs  of  the  abdomen  that  is 
required  of  them  to  perform  their  special  functions. 

The  development  of  the  thorax  may  be  secured  in 
three  ways  :  first,  by  external  and  internal  muscular  de- 
velopment ;  second,  by  exercises  which  increase  the  size 
of  the  heart;  and,  third,  by  the  development  of  the 
lungs.  Under  the  first  heading,  we  may  subdivide  the 
external  treatment  into  two  kinds  of  movements — pri- 
mary and  secondary,  the  object  of  these  movements  be- 
ing to  widen  and  deepen  the  chest.  The  chest  and 
thorax  in  this  case  are  synonymous,  although  (in  the 
eyes  of  physical  directors)  the  chest  muscles  and  the 
muscles  of  the  thorax  are  not  identical.  The  primary 
motion  for  widening  the  chest  is  that  in  which  the  thorax 
itself  is  used  to  produce  the  result.  Mr.  Roberts,  the 
energetic  instructor  in  gymnastics  in  the  Boston  Y.  M. 
C.  A.,  has  termed  this  movement  "  sternum  expression." 
It  consists  in  the  arching  of  the  chest — the  elevation  of 
the  ribs.  It  is  performed  by  forcing  back  the  anterior 
walls  of  the  abdomen  and  depressing  somewhat  the 
shoulders.  The  question  may  then  be  properly  asked, 
Is  this  a  primary  exercise  for  the  thorax,  if  other  parts 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON  PARTS  OF  THE  BODY.        139 

are  used  to  produce  the  result?  It  is  the  nearest  ap- 
proach to  a  primary  motion  we  can  call  to  mind.  It 
certainly  has  great  value.  If  the  mouth  and  nose  are 
closed  the  pupil  can,  by  pure  muscular  movement,  in- 
crease the  girth  measurements  one  or  two  inches. 

The  secondary  exercises  for  widening  the  thorax  are 
these  :  shrug  or  elevate  the  shoulders  as  high  as  possible  ; 
swing  the  arms  sideways  over  the  head,  with  neck  firm 
or  arms  up,  bend  the  body  to  the  right  and  left,  or,  by 
placing  one  hand  on  the  hip  and  curving  the  other  hand 
over  the  head,  bending  the  body  to  one  side,  we  elevate 
the  opposite  portion  of  the  thorax.  The  letter  Y  posi- 
tion (Fig.  6)  will  also  widen  the  chest. 

To  deepen  the  thorax  there  is  but  one  primary  motion, 
which  has  been  described  under  the  term  "sternum  ex- 
pression." The  secondary  movements  are  :  the  bending 
backward  of  the  head,  the  bending  of  the  body  back- 
ward and  obliquely  backward,  the  swinging  of  the  arms 
forward  and  upward,  the  letter  Y  position  and  body 
bending  backward,  the  hips  firm,  chest  arched,  and 
body  bending  forward.  It  is  not  the  object  of  this  chap- 
ter to  go  into  a  complete  list  of  movements  or  to  arrange 
a  progressive  series  of  exercises.  It  is  well,  however,  for 
the  teacher  to  understand  the  principles  upon  which  the 
movements  are  based.  Baron  Posse's  "  Swedish  Gym- 
nastics" (Kinesiology)  is  strongly  indorsed. 

The  instructor  who  wishes,  can  ascertain  the  results 
of  arm  movements  on  the  diameters  of  the  thorax  by 
placing  the  calipers  against  the  walls  of  the  chest, 
then  swinging  the  arms  sideways  and  upward.  By  so 
doing  she  will  find  that  the  diameter  is  increased  very 


140  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

perceptibly.  This  is  equally  true  if  the  calipers  are 
placed  against  the  spine  and  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
thorax,  and  the  arms  raised  forward. 

There  has  been  some  discussion  lately  on  the  compara- 
tive value  of  certain  exercises  for  widening  and  deepen- 
ing the  thorax.  It  seems  that  many  of  our  gymnastic 
teachers  have  accepted  without  question  the  statement 
that  the  quarter  circle,  intercostal  machine,  and  ab- 
dominal attachment  to  the  chest  weight  are  the  in- 
struments, par  excellence,  for  widening  and  deepening 
the  chest. 

The  student  anxious  to  deepen  his  chest  has  been  ad- 
vised to  lie  over  the  arc  of  the  quarter  circle  and  go 
through  prescribed  movements,  or  if  this  was  not  avail- 
able to  use  the  intercostal  machine.  In  case  the  second 
device  was  also  wanting,  the  instructor  recommended 
the  plan  shown  in  the  following  illustration ;  a  simple 
combination  of  the  abdominal  attachment  of  the  chest 
weight  and  a  mat. 


Almost  ten  years  ago  a  firm  interested  in  the  manu- 
facture of  gymnastic  apparatus  distributed  an  illustrated 
pamphlet  on  the  chest  weight ;  since  then  nearly  every 
firm  engaged  in  making  appliances  for  the  gymnasium 
has  used  identical  cuts,  with  the  same  descriptive  word- 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON  PARTS  OF  THE  BODY.        141 

ing,  while  usage  and  habit  have  made  the  diagrams  seem 
correct. 

It  will  be  beneficial  to  the  cause  of  physical  training 
if  more  time  can  be  given  to  thoughtful  discussion  of 
the  apparatus  found  in  our  modern  gymnasia.  Some 
teachers  take  too  much  for  granted,  they  are  slow  in 
taking  the  initiative  in  investigating  statements  ;  others 
blindly  pin  their  faith  to  manuals  issued  by  publishers. 

The  raising  of  the  arms  sideways  and  upwards  widens 
the  chest,  while  swinging  them  forward  and  upward 
deepens  it.  This  statement  is  easily  verified  by  the  ap- 
plication of  the  slide  or  calipers. 

Arm-raising  is  done  by  muscles  above  the  shoulders 
and  on  the  upper  back,  so  that  the  result  of  these  move- 
ments, i.  e.,  the  lengthening  of  the  diameters  of  the 
thorax,  is  accomplished  by  the  muscles  that  elevate  the 
shoulders,  ribs,  and  arms. 

To  produce  a  like  effect  we  have  been  in  the  habit  of 
placing  the  student  on  the  quarter  circle,  requiring  him 
to  develop  the  muscles  which  pull  down  or  depress  the 
shoulders,  ribs,  and  arms. 

Now  the  question  arises,  Why  do  we  at  one  moment 
give  arm-raising  with  or  without  resistance  to  expand 
the  chest  and  the  next  direct  the  pupil  to  pull  the  arms 
down  to  reach  the  same  result?  It  has  been  said  that 
the  pectorals  in  this  exercise  will  elevate  the  sternum  ; 
this  would  be  so  if  the  shoulders  were  firmly  fixed,  but 
of  the  two  parts  of  the  body,  the  shoulders  move  more 
readily  and  are  consequently  drawn  forward  and  down. 
A  broad,  deep  chest  does  not  usually  accompany  round, 
sloping  shoulders. 


142  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

In  the  treatment  of  "the  bony  cartilaginous  cage," 
we  place  too  little  value  upon  the  development  of  the 
middle  back,  and  the  position  of  the  spine.  It  is  of  great 
importance  that  the  vertebrae  be  kept  as  nearly  as 
possible  within  the  line  of  their  customary  curves. 

Correct  posture  is  soon  to  play  a  more  important  part 
in  our  gymnastic  training. 

Why  is  it  that  if  we  wish  to  produce  a  normal  back 
we  place  the  pupil  in  a  very  abnormal  position  and  keep 
him  there,  as  on  the  quarter  circle  ?  It  is  hardly  rational 
to  expect  to  produce  symmetry  by  assuming  and  hold- 
ing positions  that  approach  deformity.  (Exceptions  are 
made  when  treating  scoliosis,  etc.) 

The  quarter  circle  is  a  clever  device  for  strengthening 
the  front  and  sides  of  the  waist  and  the  abdomen  ;  it  is 
valuable  for  certain  forms  of  indigestion,  and  may  be  of 
use  in  reducing  adipose,  but  as  a  chest  deepener  it  is 
over-rated.  It  is  true  that  by  placing  a  person  over  the 
curved  board,  the  chest  is  arched,  and  if  the  patient  will 
grasp  the  handles  and  allow  the  hands  to  go  slowly  back 
and  up,  there  is  a  perceptible  increase  in  the  girth  meas- 
urement ;  but  is  this  increase  the  result  of  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  muscles  themselves,  or  is  it  the  effect  of  the 
weight?  If  the  latter,  then  the  chest  is  expanded  by 
a  weight  and  not  by  muscular  contraction,  and  if  this  is 
true,  would  not  the  muscles  which  prevent  expansion  of 
the  chest  be  strengthened  in  their  effort  to  overcome  the 
resistance  made  by  the  weight? 

To  permanently  expand  the  thorax  we  must  develop 
the  muscles  which  produce  this  result. 

The  quarter  circle  develops  the  recti,  external  and 


FIG.  7.— The  Chest  Machine.    (Page  143.) 


OF  TH» 

CTNIVERSITY 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON   PARTS  OF  THE   BODY.        143 

internal  oblique  abdominal  and  transversalis  muscles. 

Muscles  tend  to  draw  their  points  of  origin  and  in- 
sertion toward  each  other  even  when  at  rest.  How, 
then,  can  these  strong  bands  which  are  drawing  the  an- 
terior portion  of  the  thorax  and  the  pelvic  attachment 
nearer  together  assist  in  deepening  the  chest  ? 

The  strong  latissimi  also  draw  down.  By  which 
method,  then,  are  we  to  elevate  the  chest?  By  continu- 
ally working  downward  or  upward  ? 

The  same  may  be  asked  in  reference  to  the  intercostal 
and  abdominal  attachment  of  the  chest  weight. 

The  belief  that  a  machine  built  upon  the  reverse  or- 
der would  be  productive  of  better  results  led  me  to  fashion 
an  inclined  board  with  wheels  at  the  base,  so  planned 
that  the  chest  would  be  properly  arched  and  kept  so  dur- 
ing the  exercise.  This  can  be  done  by  a  device  that  will 
support  the  middle  upper  back  and  prevent  any  sinking 
or  sagging  of  the  spine. 

The  illustration  (Fig.  7)  gives  one  an  idea  of  the  new 
chest  machine.  The  roller  is  adjustable,  adapting  the 
machine  to  persons  of  different  heights.  Some  changes 
will  be  made  in  the  details.  The  wheels  near  the  weights 
are  not  needed,  and  instead  of  a  roller,  will  be  used  an 
oblong  back  rest  or  curved  board. 

The  following  deductions  have  also  led  me  to  depart 
from  the  beaten  path  : 

1.  The  position  on  the  old  quarter  circle  is  not  a  good 
one. 

2.  The  machine  is  essentially  for  the  waist  and  abdo- 
men and  not  the  chest,  while  the  muscles  that  should 
be  developed  are  not  drawn  enough  into  action. 


144  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

3,  The  force  is  from  above  down,  consequently  the 
muscles  developed  tend  to  cramp  the  thorax  by  pulling 
it  lower. 

By  the  new  device  : 

1.  The  pupil  is  placed  in  a  posture  that  approximates 
a  normal  position  of  the  body,  the  surface  of  the  board 
being  molded  to  the  spinal  curves  and  tilted  back  far 
enough  to  localize  the  work.     On  this  board  one  cannot 
exaggerate  the  attitude,  but  is  compelled  to  arch  the 
chest  to  nearer  the  right  degree. 

2.  The  muscles  which  tend  to  compress  the  thorax 
are  not   brought  into  action  as  on  the  old  machine, 
while  those  instrumental  in  widening  the  chest  are  de- 
veloped. 

3.  In  the  old  quarter  circle  the  weights  deepen  the 
chest ;    here  the  muscles  do    the  work,  and  are  made 
stronger  by  overcoming  resistance  from  below. 

In  applying  the  principle  to  the  intercostal  machine, 
I  have  followed  the  same  plan,  in  that  the  wheels  are 
placed  on  the  floor,  consequently  the  pulling  is  from  be- 
low upward,  while  with  the  abdominal  mat  the  pupil 
lies  at  length  with  his  feet,  not  his  head,  to  the  ma- 
chine. 

I  do  not  say  that  the  new  chest  machine  is  the  best 
contrivance  in  the  gymnasium  for  expanding  the  thorax, 
for  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  inverted  "  Intercostal " 
is  preferable,  but  I  think  that  of  the  two  machines  for 
developing  the  chest,  the  quarter  circle  and  new  chest 
machine,  the  latter  is  better. 

The  research  work  done  by  the  pupils  of  the  Ander- 
son School  of  Gymnastics  in  reference  to  this  subject  led 


OF  THB 

UNIVERSITY 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON   PARTS  OF  THE  BODY.        145 

me  to  believe  that  the  principle  of  continually  pulling 
down  to  increase  the  thoracic  diameter  is  wrong. 

BREATHING. 

A  subject  that  should  be  discussed  under  the  head- 
ing Thorax.  The  importance  attached  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  lungs  cannot  be  questioned.  The  teacher 
should  know  what  exercises  are  used,  how  they  affect 
the  lungs ;  she  should  understand  why  we  breathe, 
and  how  we  breathe.  If  the  opportunity  presents  itself, 
it  would  be  to  the  advantage  of  the  teacher  to  make 
some  device  that  will  show  the  scholars  the  method  of 
breathing.  Dr.  Seaver,  of  the  Yale  Gymnasium,  has 
arranged  a  device  with  bellows,  that  answers  this  pur- 
pose admirably.  Pupils  do  not  understand  that  the 
lungs  are  filled  by  having  a  vacuum  produced,  into  which 
the  air  rushes. 

The  defects  in  the  lungs  are  these  :  the  upper  portions 
of  the  apices  are  not,  as  a  rule,  filled  at  each  inhalation. 
People  who  live  a  sedentary  life  do  not  call  into  action 
the  necessary  portions  of  the  lung,  which,  if  not  used, 
may  become  weakened  and  diseased.  Scholars  who  will 
not  take  the  breathing  exercises  of  their  own  accord 
should  be  made  to  breathe  deeply  and  rapidly  through 
the  exercises  set  aside  for  this  purpose,  viz.:  running, 
jumping,  or  quick  leg  work  of  any  kind. 

It  is  not  wise  for  the  teacher  to  discuss  the  different 
forms  of  breathing  with  small  children.  It  is  of  little 
moment  to  a  child  whether  its  breathing  is  diaphrag- 
matic, intercostal,  abdominal,  or  thoracic — or  what  mus- 
cles are  used.  The  teacher  should,  at  every  lesson,  give 


146  METHODS  OF  TEACHING   GYMNASTICS. 

some  drill  that  will  compel  the  child  to  breathe  deeply 
and  rapidly. 

In  reply  to  the  question,  What  muscles  are  used  in 
breathing,  we  can  say  that  nearly  every  muscle  of  the 
body  is  used  in  forced  inspiration.  In  the  ordinary 
breathing,  the  muscles  surrounding  the  thorax  play  an 
important  part.  But  here,  as  before,  the  teacher  can 
learn  by  referring  to  the  works  on  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology. The  difference  in  length  of  inhaling  and  exhaling 
is  discussed  in  the  works  on  the  physiology  of  exercise. 
The  chapter  on  breath lessness  in  La  Grange's  "Physi- 
ology of  Exercise"  is  very  interesting.  The  teacher 
who  wishes  to  ascertain  the  difference  between  normal 
and  abnormal  breathing  should  study  the  healthy  child. 
Abnormal  breathing  begins  when  the  action  of  the 
thorax  is  interfered  with  by  dress,  posture,  profession,  or 
disease.  The  breathing  of  men  and  women  should 
be  .identical.  The  experiments  made  by  Dr.  Mays  of 
Philadelphia,  Dr.  Robert  L.  Dickinson  of  Brooklyn, 
and  Dr.  Kellogg  of  Battle  Creek  will  give  the  reader 
further  information  on  this  subject.  Instructors  in 
gymnastics,  whether  physicians  or  laymen,  should  read 
articles  on  the  lungs,  their  diseases  and  treatment. 

To  increase  the  capacity  of  the  lungs,  the  primary 
work  would  be  inhaling  and  exhaling.  The  secondary 
would  be  a  combination  of  inhaling  with  the  head  bend- 
ing movements  backward,  the  arm  swinging  sideways 
and  upward,  or  artificial  respiration,  which  is  performed 
after  this  fashion  :  the  arms  are  raised  forward  and  up- 
ward, during  which  time  the  pupil  inhales  ;  they  are 
then  forced  backward  and  downward,  when  exhalation 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON   PARTS  OF   THE  BODY.        147 

takes  place.  The  teacher  should  notice  the  position  of 
the  head  and  the  hips  during  these  movements.  Shrug- 
ging or  elevating  the  shoulders  combined  with  breathing 
is  a  good  exercise.  Inhaling,  holding  the  breath  for  a 
few  seconds,  and  gently  forcing  the  arms  (which  are  half 
flexed)  backward,  is  also  a  good  drill. 

The  general  rules  for  increasing  the  capacity  of  the 
lungs  would  be  these  :  give  all  running,  jumping,  hop- 
ping, and  leaping  movements ;  give  the  class  drills  in 
counting  aloud,  singing,  and  whistling.  Make  the  work 
simple,  but  interesting,  when  teaching  children.  They 
love  to  take  these  movements. 

THE  SPINE. 

There  has  been  a  constant  call  for  exercises  that  will 
remedy  or  cure  certain  defects  of  the  spine.  We  cannot 
lay  down  a  series  of  rules  and  say  that  they  will  apply 
to  all  cases.  Physicians  who  have  had  experience  in 
handling  the  spine  are  careful  about  preparing  set  rules 
or  exercises  for  abnormal  curves.  The  common  defect  in 
the  spine  termed  kyphosis,  or,  in  plain  words,  stooping 
shoulders,  will  be  helped  by  the  following  exercises. 

KYPHOSIS. — A   SERIES  OF   EXERCISES   FOR   KYPHOSIS, 
OR  STOOPING  SHOULDERS. 

Assume  the  best  possible  standing  position,  with  head 
erect,  chest  arched,  hips  back. 

(1)  Neck  work.     Clasp  the  hands  back  of  the  head, 
then  pulling  with  the  hands,  bend  head  backward,  eight 
to  sixteen  times. 

(2)  Shoulder  work.    Swing  the  arms  forward  and  up- 
ward, then  force  them  back  and  down  six  to  eight  times. 


148  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

(3)  Back  work.    With  the  arms  up  bend  the  body  well 
forward,  keeping  the  arms  at  the  side  of  the  head,  eight 
times. 

(4)  Same  as  No.  3,  but  in  the  kneeling  position.     Also 
bend  the  body  backward. 

(5)  Neck  work.    Lie,  face  downward,  on  the  floor  or 
mat,  resting  forehead  on  the  folded  arms.     Raise  head  as 
high  as  possible  eight  to  sixteen  times. 

(6)  Upper  spine.    With  the  neck  firm,  position  lying 
face  down,  some  one  holding  the  feet,  raise  the  shoulders 
as  high  as  possible  one  to  ten  times. 

(7)  "Swimming  motion.11 

In  case  the  exercises  are  too  severe  take  each  one  only 
a  few  times  and  omit  Nos.  6  and  7. 

These  exercises  are  to  be  taken  the  number  of  times 
indicated  by  the  figures. 

The  swimming  motion  is  taken  in  this  way  :  lie  face 
down,  as  in  No.  5,  but  go  through  regular  swimming 
motions  with  the  arms.  The  hands  are  not  to  touch  the 
floor  at  any  time.  These  exercises  are  also  good  for 
drooping  head. 

Projecting  hips  may  be  helped  if  the  teacher  will  give 
to  the  scholars  exercises  for  developing  the  muscles  on 
the  front  and  sides  of  the  waist,  the  anterior  portion  of 
the  pelvis,  and  the  upper  front  thighs.  If  any  special 
rule  were  to  be  given  for  the  treatment  of  a  spinal  defect, 
it  would  be  to  place  the  patient  in  the  best  possible  posi- 
tion, compelling  him  to  hold  it  until  slightly  fatigued, 
then  permitting  rest,  and  later  on  repeating  the  process. 
If  defects  are  caused  by  incorrect  posture,  they  can  be 
helped  by  assuming  and  holding  correct  positions.  If  a 


OUTLINE  LESSONS  ON  PARTS  OF  THE  BODY.        149 

bad  position  produces  a  defect,  a  good  position  will  tend 
to  cure  it.  It  would  be  far  better  for  the  instructor  in 
gymnastics  who  has  not  a  medical  education  to  refer 
a  case  of  spinal  trouble  or  defect  to  some  physician. 

COMMON  PHYSICAL  DEFECTS. 

The  common  physical  defects  which  may  be  helped  by 
free  gymnastics : 
Head. 

Drops  forward. 

Carried  a  little  to  one  side. 

Chin  raised  too  high,  or  protruding. 
Shoulders. 

Round,  stooping,  sloping,  and  uneven. 
Thorax. 

One  side  better  developed  or  larger  than  the  other. 

The  diameters  too  short. 
Upper  back. 

Right  shoulder  blade   too    prominent    in    right- 
handed  people. 
Spine. 

Side  or  lateral  curves.    Rotation. 

Bends  too  far  forward  from  between  the  shoulders. 
Waist. 

Too  narrow. 

Abdominal  muscles  weak. 
Hips. 

Thrown  too  far  forward. 
Arms. 

Forearm  better  developed  than  the  upper  arm. 
Leg. 

Better  developed  than  thigh. 
Thigh. 

Inside  and  back  poorly  developed. 
Planes  of  the  Body.    The  arms  may  be  held  shoulder 
high  to  the  side,  front,  or  obliquely  front ;  hip  high  to 


150  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

side  ;  head  high  to  side.  To  distinguish  the  position  of 
straight  arms,  these  planes  of  the  body  are  used  :  head, 
shoulders,  chest,  and  hips. 

Directions.  All  exercises  are  given  in  one  or  more  of 
the  following  directions :  down,  out,  up,  or  front.  Or 
they  may  be  given  to  the  front  and  back,  right  and  left, 
and  in  the  oblique  directions  front  and  back,  both  to 
right  and  left. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

HOW  TO  TEACH  WALKING. 

BEFORE  walking  can  be  taught,  there  must  be  a 
thorough  comprehension  of  what  is  meant  by  good  walk- 
ing. No  man  or  woman  can  teach  what  he  or  she  does 
not  know,  and  if  what  constitutes  good  walking  is  not 
understood,  the  instructor  cannot  teach. 

A  preliminary  talk  with  children  invariably  has  an 
excellent  effect,  when  the  subject  of  walking  is  to  be 
brought  to  their  attention.  Ask  them  to  notice  how  a 
minister  walks  up  the  church  aisle  and  into  his  pulpit. 
They  will  readily  see  your  point  when  you  state  that 
the  deliberate,  measured  step  he  takes  detracts  not  at  all, 
but  is  associated  with  the  dignity  of  his  office.  They 
will  agree  with  you  when  you  say  that  the  joyousness  of 
a  laughing  child  finds  outward  expression  in  a  light, 
quick  walk  ;  that  imbecility  is  evinced  by  an  undecided 
walk,  wavering  and  weak.  Old  age  totters  and  requires 
support.  An  honest,  courageous,  active  young  man  or 
woman  may  walk  well,  and  a  person  would  be  far 
more  likely  to  trust  one  with  such  a  walk  than  the 
individual  who  entered  his  presence  with  a  shuffling, 
shambling  gait.  Many  a  child  has  not,  before  this, 
really  comprehended  that  carriage  and  the  walk  are 
closely  allied  with  the  character.  Pride  in  self  is  aroused, 

151 


152  METHODS  OF  TEACHING   GYMNASTICS. 

the  incentive  to  be  a  noble-looking  and  noble-acting  boy 
or  girl  comes  forth,  and  before  the  "practical  teaching" 
is  begun  the  child  wants  to  walk  correctly,  and  ivill,  if 
you  teach  it  rightly. 

Ask  your  pupils  to  watch  an  ideal  walker.  Tell  them, 
that  such  a  person  is  a  good  walker,  being  easy  and 
graceful,  the  opposite  of  awkward  and  clumsy,  in  his 
movements.  Tell  them  to  observe  that  Mr.  B.  carries 
his  body  properly,  this  including  the  position  of  the 
head,  the  chest,  and  the  hips.  If  the  child  observes  that 
the  head  droops  forward,  that  the  chest  is  flat,  or  the 
hips  are  too  far  advanced,  he  knows  that  these  defects 
must  be  remedied  before  good  walking  can  be  acquired. 
The  public  school-teacher,  anxious  to  train  her  pupils  in 
this  art,  should  watch  them  carefully,  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  position  of  the  head,  the  action  of  the 
shoulders,  hips,  legs,  and  arms.  The  carriage  of  the 
body  as  a  whole  should  be  observed. 

In  teaching  the  exercises  it  will  not  only  be  necessary 
to  note  carefully  the  defects  which  exist,  but  the  various 
movements  of  the  different  parts  of  the  body  must  be 
carefully  analyzed,  as  a  person  takes  a  few  steps.  Again, 
the  members  of  the  body  must  be  trained  as  parts,  and 
then  we  must  apply  the  exercises  to  the  body  as  a  whole. 
A  child  may  use  his  arms  well,  if  he  uses  only  the  arms. 
He  may  have  free  leg  movements,  his  head  may  be  erect, 
the  chest  may  be  beautifully  arched  ;  but  it  requires 
practice  to  properly  handle  all  of  these  different  parts  at 
once,  as  in  walking.  It  is  not  possible  to  make  a  perfect 
whole  from  imperfect  parts.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  make  a 
perfect  whole  of  perfect  parts,  unless  they  are  rightly 


HOW   TO  TEACH  WALKING.  153 

placed  together.  Therefore,  not  only  should  the  members 
of  the  body  which  are  used  be  educated,  but  the  body  as 
a  whole  should  be  brought  under  discipline. 

The  right  carriage  of  the  head  and  chest  adds  dignity 
to  the  walk.  Call  to  the  pupil's  attention  the  necessity 
of  holding  the  head  erect.  It  will  become  evident  to  the 
observing  teacher  that  some  pupils  swing  the  head  too 
much  in  walking.  Others  thrust  the  head  forward,  or 
give  to  the  shoulders  a  swinging  or  shrugging  move- 
ment. The  arms  of  some  scholars  are  held  stiffly  at  the 
side,  or  are  not  allowed  to  swing  at  all.  There  may  be  a 
sinking  motion  to  the  hip,  as  the  pupil  takes  a  step. 
The  foot  may  be  placed  heavily  upon  the  floor.  The 
start  may  be  made  from  the  flat  foot  and  not  from  the 
ball  of  the  foot,  or  the  walking  itself  may  be  unsteady 
and  in  irregular  lines.  Now,  knowing  these  defects,  the 
next  thing  is  to  analyze  two  or  three  steps,  that  we  may 
secure  exercises  to  assist  in  teaching  pupils  how  to  walk. 

The  pupil  starts  from  the  position  of  attention  (Fig. 
8),  the  weight  equally  distributed  upon  both  feet.  From 
this  attitude  it  is  impossible  to  take  a  step  without  doing 
two  things  :  first,  the  body  must  sway  to  the  right,  that 
the  left  foot  may  be  free;  and,  second,  the  body  must 
fall  forward,  that  the  pupil  may  gain  ground  or  advance. 
Since  this  is  true,  we  know  that  at  first  there  are  two 
movements  which  can  be  given  as  exercises  : 

SWAYING  EXERCISES. 

1.  With  common  base,  sway  the  body  from  the  right 
to  the  left.  Allow  four  counts  to  the  right  and  four  to 
the  left.  (The  effect  of  this  exercise,  when  taken  by  a 


154  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

large  class,  is  rather  pleasing,  as  it  brings  a  suggestion 
of  the  wheat  in  the  field,  as  it  is  swayed  gently  to  and 
fro  by  the  wind.) 

Sway  the  body  forward  and  backward,  using  the  com- 
mon base.  (This  will  be  a  more  difficult  exercise,  as  the 
arc  of  the  circle  made  by  the  head  is  shorter  than  from 
right  to  left.  In  either  of  these  exercises  do  not  bend 
the  body,  but  let  it  sway  as  a  whole.)  To  modify  the 
movements,  place  the  right  foot  its  length  obliquely  for- 
ward to  the  right  and  sway  to  the  forward  foot,  raising 
slightly  the  back  heel.  Sway  back  to  the  left  foot,  leav- 
ing the  right  foot  on  the  floor.  The  motion  should  be 
even  and  regular.  Also  sway  the  body  to  the  right  and 
left  with  a  wide  base,  the  feet  eight  to  ten  inches  apart. 
(The  pupil  who  makes  quick  and  jerky  motions  in  these 
exercises  will  be  apt  to  do  the  same  in  walking.) 

After  swaying,  the  next  noticeable  movement  is  bend- 
ing the  left  knee,  preparatory  to  raising  the  left  foot 
from  the  floor. 

KNEE  BENDING  EXERCISES. 

2.  Without  removing  the  toes  from  the  floor,  slightly 
bend  the  right  knee  from  eight  to  sixteen  times,  and 
then  the  left.    Notice  whether  the  pupil  allows  the  right 
hip  to  sink  when  taking  the  knee  bendings.    This,  if  it 
occurs,  is  a  defect.    The  child  who  lowers  the  hip  while 
practicing  the  knee  bending  exercises  may  do  the  same 
in  walking.     (See  Fig.  9.) 

FOOT  RAISING  EXERCISES. 

3.  Without  moving  other  parts  of  the  body,  half  flex 
the  right  thigh  sixteen  times.    Take  the  same  exercise 


• 


HOW   TO  TEACH  WALKING.  155 

with  the  left.    By  this  means  the  foot  is  raised  from  the 
floor. 

After  the  foot  has  been  raised  from  the  floor  by  flexing 
the  thigh,  it  is  necessary,  to  gain  ground,  to  swing  the 
leg  forward.  As  a  means  to  this  end  give  the  leg  swing- 
ing exercises.  (Note  the  difference  between  the  leg  and 
the  thigh.)  The  teacher  will  observe  that  this  is  a  bal- 
ancing motion. 

LEG  SWINGING  EXERCISES. 

4.  With  the  thigh  slightly  flexed,  swing  the  leg  for- 
ward and  backward  eight  or  sixteen  times,  keeping  the 
thigh  in  place. 

After  the  leg  swings  forward,  and  the  foot  is  made 
ready  to  be  placed  on  the  floor,  give  the  extending  and 
flexing  of  the  foot. 

FOOT  EXTENSION  AND   FLEXION  EXERCISE. 

5.  Extend  and  flex  the  right  foot  eight  or  sixteen 
times.    The  left. 

The  teacher  will  notice  now,  that  the  weight  of  the 
body  is  upon  the  right  leg,  the  foot  of  the  left  is  ready 
to  be  placed  upon  the  floor,  and  the  next  exercise  which 
will  naturally  follow  is  changing  the  weight  of  the 
body  from  the  right  to  the  left  foot. 

CHANGING  WEIGHT  EXERCISE. 

6.  Let  the  body  fall  forward  until  its  weight  rests  upon 
the  left  foot.     Raise  the  heel  of  the  right  foot,  the  right 
toe  touching  the  floor.    Sway  back  again  to  the  right 
foot,  raising  the  left  foot  from  the  floor.    Repeat  this 
movement,  going  forward  and  back  eight  or   sixteen 
times.    (The  feet  do  not  come  together  in  the  exercise.) 


156  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

The  weight  is  now  upon  the  left  leg.  The  next  exer- 
cise will  be  a  pendulum  movement.  Give  as  an  exercise 
thigh  swinging  forward  and  backward. 

THIGH  SWINGING  EXERCISE. 

7.  Swing  the  thigh  forward  or  backward  eight  or  six- 
teen times  with  a  pendulum  motion. 

A  final  exercise  will  require  the  movement  of  the  body 
as  a  whole. 

EXERCISE. 

8.  With  the  left  foot  take  one  step  forward,  planting 
the  right  foot  by  it,  touching  heels.    Step  back  with 
right  foot,  bring  the  left  back  alongside  it.     Repeat  to 
counts  of  eight  or  sixteen. 

These  exercises  are  termed  primary,  because  they  are 
actual  parts  of  the  step.  To  walk  properly,  the  pupil 
should  be  able  to  balance  the  body  well.  As  a  secondary 
exercise,  give  balancing  movements.  Drill  the  pupil  also 
in  the  charging,  stepping,  and  wide  base  swaying  move- 
ments. Running  in  place,  and  hopping  and  jumping 
movements  are  all  valuable.  If  these  are  correctly  done, 
the  pupil  will  be  taught  to  depend  more  upon  the  action 
of  the  ball  of  the  foot  than  he  does. 

The  foregoing  is  a  description  of  exercises  for  the  legs. 
A  person  must  pay  attention  to  the  position  of  other 
parts  of  the  body.  Exercises  should  be  given  for  widen- 
ing and  deepening  the  chest,  for  developing  the  muscles 
of  the  neck,  that  the  head  may  be  carried  properly,  for 
removing  the  tension  from  the  arm  muscles  if  it  is  too; 
great,  and  for  the  strengthening  of  the  waist  and  ab- 
domen. 


HONV  TO  TEACH   WALKING.  157 

A  few  general  rules  will  be  of  some  value,  if  they  are 
enforced.  The  ball  of  the  foot  does  not  touch  the  floor 
first.  The  best  walkers  plant  almost  a  flat  foot,  the  heel 
striking  the  ground  a  little  in  advance  of  the  rest  of  the 
foot.  Bean  bags  and  light  weights  may  be  carried  on  the 
head.  Do  not  overtrain  one  part  of  the  body. 

All  exercises  can  be  taken  to  waltz  time ;  if  music  is 
not  used  the  motions  can  be  taken  any  odd  or  even  num- 
ber of  times. 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 

THE  ALPHABET. 

SPACE  will  be  given  to  a  discussion  of  some  of  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet.  We  use  only  twenty  in  our 
work,  although  there  are  other  movements  that  can  be 
classed  under  this  head,  but  we  find  from  experience  that 
this  number  is  sufficient  for  the  present.  Here  we  shall 
call  attention  to  only  a  few  of  them. 

Let  us  take  up  the  first  one,  the  stepping  motion.* 
The  stepping  motion,  which  is  a  leg  exercise,  consists  in 
swinging  the  leg  forward  until  the  foot  has  gone  its  own 
length,  then  touching  the  tip  of  the  foot  to  the  floor  with- 
out lowering  the  heel.  The  foot  is  then  returned  and 
placed  alongside  the  other.  (See  Fig.  10.)  In  this  exer- 
cise the  body  is  kept  in  place  by  balancing  it  on  the 
left  foot.  The  teacher  should  notice  that  the  shoulders 
and  thorax  do  not  move.  In  short,  the  scholar  should 
be  kept  in  the  position  of  attention,  except  that  the  right 
foot  and  leg  are  advanced,  the  weight  being  on  the  left. 

The  stepping  motion  is  taken  in  these  directions :  to 
the  front,  obliquely  forward,  to  the  right,  obliquely  back, 
and  back,  the  knee  not  being  bent ;  but  when  taken 
across  in  front,  to  the  left,  or  across  back,  the  knee  is 
bent.  The  tip  of  the  toe  touches  the  floor,  and  the  angle 

*The  reader  is  referred  to  the  work  entitled  "  Light  Gymnastics," 
by  the  author,  for  a  short  description  of  each  of  these  terms. 

158 


THE  ALPHABET.  159 

kept  by  the  feet  is,  in  nearly  all  cases,  sixty  degrees. 
This  is  an  important  point  to  be  remembered,  otherwise 
the  child  is  apt  to  "  toe  in,"  when  stepping  across. 

Do  not  give  more  than  the  stepping  exercise  at  one 
lesson,  and  thoroughly  drill  the  scholars  upon  the  move- 
ment. It  will  be  found  later,  when  teaching  series  of 
movements,  that  the  stepping  exercise  forms  an  im- 
portant part  of  many  drills.  Stepping  and  foot  placing 
are  not  identical. 

The  charging  motion  is  considered  one  of  the  most 
difficult  movements  in  the  alphabet.  In  the  stepping 
motion  the  foot  is  carried  forward  its  own  length  ;  in  the 
charging  motion  twice  its  own  length.  Some  instructors 
place  the  foot  three  lengths  forward ;  we  find  two  lengths 
sufficient.  The  body  is  carried  forward,  the  trunk  being 
in  a  perpendicular  position,  the  heels  and  toes  of  both 
feet  are  on  the  floor,  the  right  knee  is  bent  until  it  con- 
ceals the  foot.  The  point  of  the  body  farthest  forward 
is  the  right  knee,  next  the  toes  of  the  right  foot,  next 
the  chest.  The  hands  may  be  placed  on  the  hip,  the 
shoulders  are  turned  a  little  to  the  right.  The  eyes 
are  to  the  front,  or  they  may  be  turned  in  the  oblique 
direction  and  the  head  turned  in  the  same  way,  if  the 
teacher  wishes.  (See  Fig.  11.) 

The  difficult  parts  of  the  charging  motion  are  these : 
the  chest  must  be  in  advance  of  the  hips,  the  right  knee 
is  bent,  the  left  leg  is  perfectly  straight,  and  the  lines 
which  run  from  the  right  knee  to  the  heel  and  from  the 
left  hip  to  the  heel  would  be  parallel  in  this  motion. 
This  last  rule  cannot  be  applied  when  the  right  foot  is 
charged  obliquely  forward  or  backward  to  the  left. 


160  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

A  charging  motion  is  taken  in  seven  directions,  viz. : 
to  the  front  and  to  the  rear,  obliquely  forward  and  back 
ward  to  the  right  and  left,  and  to  the  right.    We  do  not 
give  the  charging  motion  with  the  right  foot  to  the  left. 

When  teaching  the  stepping  or  charging  motion  notice 
that  the  first  movement  made  by  the  body  is  a  slight 
swaying  motion  to  the  left  if  the  right  foot  is  advanced. 

In  teaching  the  charging  motion  request  the  pupils  to 
take  a  foot  placing  two  foot  lengths  in  a  given  direction, 
as  seen  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  12),  then  bend  the  front 
knee,  until  the  rule  will  apply. 

In  exercises  of  this  character,  when  the  eyes  and 
shoulders  are  to  the  front,  the  feet  preserve  the  angle  of 
sixty  degrees,  when  charging  to  the  right  or  left  and 
turning  the  shoulders  in  the  same  direction  the  foot 
points  to  the  right  or  left.  In  this  case  the  angle  is 
greater  than  sixty  degrees. 

How  to  give  the  commands :  For  a  stepping  exercise 
say,  "Stepping  motion  (or  charging  motion),  right  foot 
to  the  right,  eight  times,  waltz  time,  begin."  Generally 
state  first  what  the  exercise  is  to  be  and  always  leave  the 
command  of  execution  to  the  last. 

The  reverse  charge.  An  exercise  which  is  in  many 
respects  the  reverse  of  the  charging  motion.  It  will  be 
seen  in  the  illustration.  (See  Fig.  13.) 

The  body  is  not  carried  forward  but  is  slightly  lowered, 
the  right  leg  or  foot  is  advanced  twice  its  length,  the  left 
knee  is  bent,  both  feet  are  on  the  floor. 

The  defects  to  be  remedied  are  these :  the  weight  is 
carried  too  far  forward,  the  feet  do  not  rest  on  the  floor 
according  to  the  rule,  the  body  may  be  turned  too  much 


THE  ALPHABET.  161 

to  one  side.  The  motion  is  made  in  these  directions  : 
front,  obliquely  front,  to  the  right,  obliquely  back,  and 
back.  The  reverse  charge  is  easier  than  the  regular 
charging  motion.  The  command  is,  "  Reverse  charge, 
the  right  foot  to  the  front,  begin."  State  the  direction 
and  number  of  times. 

Placing.  A  term  applied  to  the  feet  and  .arms  or  the 
body  as  a  whole.  The  foot  is  placed  to  the  right  or  the 
front  according  to  the  rules  found  in  the  various  manuals 
of  Swedish  gymnastics.  The  distance  is  either  one  or 
two  foot  lengths,  the  weight  is  equally  divided  after 
placing  the  foot.  (See  Fig.  14.)  The  command  is,  "  Foot 
placing,  right  foot  to  the  right  (or  left),  one  length  (or 
two),  place."  The  term  is  applied  to  the  arms  or  hands 
when  they  are  to  be  placed  on  the  hips,  chest,  or 
shoulders,  or  upon  the  shoulders  of  another. 

Swaying  motions.  These  are  made  with  a  common  or 
wide  base,  by  changing  the  weight  from  one  foot  to  the 
other  with  or  without  knee  bending.  The  command  is, 
"Swaying  motion,  right  foot  charge  (or  place)  to  the 
right,  begin." 

Swinging  motions  are  made  with  the  arms  and  legs, 
and  consist  in  swinging  them  to  some  given  height  in  a 
given  direction.  The  command  is,  u  Swing  the  arm  out 
(or  front  or  up),  begin." 

Circling  motions  are  different  from  the  swinging 
motions.  The  term  is  applied  to  movements  made  with 
Indian  clubs  or  to  the  similar  exercises  made  with  bells. 
Circles  are  made,  not  pendulum  movements.  The  com- 
mand is,  "Circle  the  right  club  to  the  left  (or  right), 
begin  ";  or,  "  Shoulder  circle  to  the  right,  begin." 


162  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

Thrusting  and  extending  are  the  same. 

Flexing  and  bending  are  the  same. 

These  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  described  in  "  Light 
Gymnastics." 

The  lunging  motions.  The  first  is  the  three-quarter 
lunge,  in  which  case  the  foot  is  carried  forward  three 
times  its  own  length  ;  second,  the  regulation  lunge,  as 
used  in  fencing.  In  many  drills  men  prefer  the  three- 
quarter  lunge  and  make  the  charging  motion  the  same 
distance.  It  is  necessary,  nevertheless,  that  the  class 
should  be  well  trained  in  the  full  fencing  lunge  (four 
foot  lengths).  The  first  of  these  movements  is  given  in 
as  many  directions  as  the  charging  motion.  The  second 
is  given  in  but  one  direction — to  the  front.  Do  not  give 
the  full  lunge  to  beginners.  The  command  is  similar  to 
that  for  charging. 

Hopping.  It  is  not  necessary  to  pay  much  attention 
to  this  exercise,  as  it  is  easily  learned.  It  consists  of 
leaping  up  and  down,  landing  on  the  ball  of  the  foot. 
The  heel  is  not  brought  in  contact  with  the  floor.  The 
teacher  should  instruct  the  scholars  to  hop  as  lightly  as 
possible  and  not  to  jar  the  body. 

The  hopping  movements  are  given  either  upon  the 
right,  upon  the  left,  or  upon  both  feet,  while  a  pleasant 
variation  is  found  in  allowing  the  scholars  to  hop  in  the 
air,  separate  the  feet,  and  land  with  a  wide  base,  to  hop 
again  in  the  air,  touch  the  heels,  and  come  down  in  the 
starting  position.  The  wide  base  may  be  made  with  the 
feet  placed  sidewise,  or  one  foot  forward  and  the  other 
backward.  The  command  is,  "  Hopping,  on  the  right 
(or  left)  foot  (so  many  times),  hop.11 


THE  ALPHABET.  163 

Running.  There  is  little  trouble  in  teaching  running 
to  boys  and  girls  when  young.  In  the  gymnasium  small 
girls  will  run  as  gracefully  and  as  well  as  boys,  but  they 
have  not  the  strength  or  the  staying  power.  After  a 
certain  age,  however,  the  girl  seems  to  forget  the  use  of 
her  arms,  and  runs  with  an  awkward  gait  that  must  re- 
sult from  the  arms  being  held  rigidly  at  the  side.  Run- 
ning consists  of  a  series  of  leaps  or  hops,  and  if  the  child 
has  been  well  drilled  in  the  fourth  exercise  of  the  alpha- 
bet, the  fifth  will  be  easier. 

How  to  sit:  Pupils  occupy  two  positions  at  the  desk, 
namely,  "attention"  and  "rest."  The  first  consists  of 
sitting  upright,  the  back  free  from  the  desk  or  chair,  the 
chest  arched,  the  head  erect,  the  hands  clasped  and  rest- 
ing on  the  desk.  The  second,  or  "  rest,"  permits  the 
pupil  to  sit  at  ease  in  any  good  position  of  rest,  to  lean 
against  the  back  of  the  desk,  and  to  let  the  hands  rest 
in  the  lap. 

The  reader  is  referred  to  the  admirable  work  of  Dr. 
Eliza  M.  Mosher,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  on  "  The  Posture 
of  School  Children."  The  command  is,  "  Scholars, 
attention,"  or,  "Scholars,  rest." 


CHAPTEB  XIV. 

THE    VOICE. — COMMANDS. 

A  CRITICISM  frequently  made  by  people  who  are  com- 
petent to  express  their  views  on  the  subject,  is  this : 
many  of  the  young  men  and  young  women  who  teach 
gymnastics  do  not  know  how  to  give  commands.  They 
do  not  understand  how  to  use  the  voice  in  teaching. 
The  speaking  voice  is  pleasing,  soft,  and  all  that  can  be 
desired  ;  but  these  are  not  the  qualities  for  commanding 
a  class.  Much  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which  the 
tone  is  made.  The  short,  sharp,  quick,  decisive  word 
which  starts  a  class  at  once  need  not  be  cross  or  unkind  ; 
it  is  better  than  the  sleepy  command  which  fails  to 
"stir"  the  pupils. 

The  question  has  been  asked:  "Can  I,  with  my 
naturally  weak  voice,  acquire  the  penetrating  power  that 
will  be  of  service  to  me  when  I  stand  before  a  large 
number  of  pupils?"  Yes,  you  can  educate  the  voice, 
you  can  so  train  it  that,  when  before  your  scholars,  it 
will  possess  the  desirable  qualities.  The  teacher's  natural 
voice  may  be  shrill,  which  is  unpleasant ;  and,  while  it 
may  be  deepened  a  few  tones  in  speaking  and  command- 
ing, it  stops  at  a  certain  register.  I  should  advise  the 
teacher,  therefore,  to  practice  the  commands  daily. 
Every  teacher  should  follow  the  advice  of  Comenius  and 
"  learn  by  doing."  Each  day  something  new  is  acquired 

164 


THE  VOICE. — COMMANDS.  165 

by  teaching.  When  walking  along  the  streets,  going 
home  or  coming  back  to  the  gymnasium,  she  should  say 
over  to  herself  one  command,  until  perfectly  learned. 
Not  only  repeat  the  command,  but  associate  with  the 
words  the  results.  Let  us  take,  for  example,  the  com- 
mand, "To  the  rear,  march  !  "  Repeat  these  words  until 
it  is  understood  which  part  of  the  command  is  prepara- 
tion and  which  execution,  remembering  that  there  are 
two  parts  to  every  command  :  the  first,  which  is  called 
the  preparatory  command,  such  as,  "To  the  rear"  ;  the 
second,  which  is  the  command  of  execution,  such  as  the 
word  march.  Associate  this  command  with  some  one 
walking  along  the  street,  and  say,  "  To  the  rear,  march  ! 
To  the  rear,  march!11  understanding  that  the  word 
march  must  be  given  as  the  right  foot  comes  to  the 
ground.  In  the  gymnasium  it  is  advisable  for  the 
teacher  to  give  commands  to  pupils  who  are  stationed 
at  the  further  part  of  the  room.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to 
have  the  scholars  stand  with  their  backs  to  the  teacher, 
when  she  is  giving  commands.  Frequently  when  the 
teacher  faces  the  class,  the  meaning  is  made  evident  by 
some  motion  of  the  arm  or  hand.  If,  however,  she 
stands  so  that  the  class  cannot  see  her,  the  clearness  of 
the  commands  is  tested. 

The  voice  must  be  animated,  clear,  distinct.  The 
commands  should  be  given  slowly  at  first,  until  the 
teacher  can  pronounce  every  part  of  the  word  and  utter 
clearly  every  syllable.  Later  on  the  commands  can  be 
given  very  rapidly. 

If  the  voice  is  weak,  how  can  we  train  it?  One 
method  is  by  pronouncing  the  vowels  a,  e,  a,  and  o; 


166  METHODS  OF  TEACHING   GYMNASTICS. 

then  pronouncing  the  word  ha,  or  haw,  until  there  is 
sufficient  force  back  of  the  letter  h  to  carry  the  voice  to 
all  parts  of  the  room.  The  face  is  raised ;  do  not  give 
commands  with  the  head  forward.  Rather  aim  the 
voice  above  the  heads  of  the  class  so  that,  like  a  ball 
from  a  gun,  it  will  ascend  and  go  beyond  them.  If  able 
to  play  a  few  chords  on  the  piano,  the  teacher  should 
practice  singing  the  vowels  until  she  can  make  the  tones 
in  the  front  part  of  the  mouth  ;  or,  as  one  of  our  German 
teachers  of  singing  has  expressed  it,  "  beyond  the  lips." 
When  she  has  acquired  this  art  she  will  know  it,  but 
until  then  the  voice  has  a  muffled  sound,  is  back  in  the 
throat,  tires  her,  and  is  disagreeable  to  the  scholars. 
Possibly  the  reader  may  recall  the  sing-song  tones  of 
some  school-teacher,  as  she  called  the  children  to  the 
blackboard  or  drilled  them  in  the  three  R's — the  tire- 
some, monotonous,  high-keyed  voice  that  was  exaspera- 
ting. It  is  heard  in  too  many  schools  to-day.  It  irritates 
the  pupils.  We  too  often  find  this  voice  in  the  gym- 
nasium. 

The  voice  for  speaking  and  singing  is  different  from 
that  which  is  educated  to  give  orders.  The  voice  is  one 
of  the  important  mediums  of  transferring  our  wishes 
and  our  desires  to  the  members  of  the  class.  When  begin- 
ning to  teach  gymnastics  the  instructor  will  have  to  use 
the  voice  from  one  to  four  hours  daily.  If  she  has 
properly  exercised  vocal  cords,  the  voice  will  not  be 
greatly  fatigued.  With  practice  the  voice  can  be  used 
six  or  seven  hours  daily.  The  principal  of  a  state  normal 
school  in  Connecticut  said  :  "  I  would  rather  you  would 
spend  more  time  drilling  my  girls  in  giving  commands 


THE  VOICE.— COMMANDS.  167 

and  in  using  their  voices,  than  to  put  aside  so  much  time 
for  the  gymnastic  exercises.  The  gymnastic  lesson,  such 
as  we  shall  give  in  the  schoolroom,  is  easily  learned,  but 
the  commands  are  not.  We  find  that  our  teachers  do 
not  know  how  to  describe  the  exercises  and  associate 
them  with  the  wording  of  orders." 

In  our  American  system  of  gymnastics  there  is  no 
nomenclature.  One  teacher  gives  one  command  to  pro- 
duce a  stated  result,  another  gives  another  command  to 
produce  the  same  result.  The  Germans  have  names  or 
terms  which  are  known  to  all  the  members  of  the  North 
American  Turn  Bund.  The  German  teacher  from  New 
York  City  can  go  to  San  Francisco,  New  Orleans,  St. 
Louis,  or  Chicago,  where  he  will  find  his  commands 
obeyed  immediately.  They  are  already  known ;  one 
command  means  one  thing.  The  Swedes  have  a  system 
of  commands  that  is  universal.  The  Americans  have 
not. 

We  must  pay  more  attention  to  the  voices,  and  make  a 
study  of  the  nomenclature  used  in  gymnastics.  I  shall 
never  forget  the  lesson  learned  from  one  of  my  first 
teachers,  Mr.  R.  J.  Roberts,  of  the  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association  in  Boston.  He  had  a  fine,  clear  voice, 
so  full  of  enthusiasm  and  energy  that  it  inspired  the 
boys.  They  worked  with  a  will  and  pleasure  that  were 
noticeable.  Much  of  Mr.  Roberts'  success  with  young 
men  was  due  to  his  voice.  Nearly  twenty  years  have 
passed  since  then,  but  the  lesson  was  well  learned  and 
will  not  be  forgotten,  and  I  shall  take  pleasure  in  thank- 
ing Mr.  Roberts  for  the  help  he  gave  me  in  this  direc- 
tion. The  gymnastic  instructor  who  possesses  a  poor 


168  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

voice  should  take  a  few  lessons  in  singing,  she  should 
practice  reading  aloud,  speaking  slowly  and  very  dis- 
tinctly, should  take  every  opportunity  to  strengthen 
and  purify  the  tones  when  giving  commands.  This  can 
be  done  at  every  lesson.  Make  a  note  of  the  words  that 
are  hard  to  pronounce.  Do  not  spend  too  much  time  on 
the  orders  you  can  give  well ;  they  are  cared  for.  Drill 
your  pupils  in  counting  aloud  and  count  with  them. 
Work  with  and  without  music.  To  drill  a  class  with 
piano  accompaniment  requires  a  strong  voice.  Let  part 
of  the  class  sing  while  the  rest  exercise,  and  sing  with 
them. 

If  a  great  part  of  the  success  of  a  teacher  is  due  to  the 
voice  itself,  much  depends  on  the  method  of  giving  the 
command.  The  teacher  must  remember  that  it  is  harder 
to  teach  an  exercise  not  shown,  but  described.  She 
should  therefore  take  pains  to  make  her  commands  so 
clear  that  they  will  be  easily  understood.  To  do  this  the 
command  must  be  a  short  one,  the  wording  must  be 
simple.  If  the  command  is  a  new  one  there  should  be  a 
short  period  between  the  explanation  and  the  word  of 
execution,  during  which  time  the  class  thinks.  All  ex- 
ercises should  commence  with  the  word  begin,  and  be 
stopped  by  the  word  halt.  After  a  command  has  been 
explained  the  teacher  can  say,  "Ready,  begin!"  This 
allows  more  time. 

When  giving  the  commands  for  a  compound  exercise, 
part  of  which  is  new,  comparatively  new,  or  difficult,  go 
rapidly  over  the  exercises  that  are  automatic,  because 
they  are  controlled  by  the  nerve  centers  ;  but  very  slowly 
over  the  motions  that  are  new,  or  not  so  well  learned. 


THE  VOICE.— COMMANDS.  169 

This  is  perhaps  a  fine  point  in  teaching,  but  it  is  worth 
considering.  The  teacher  wishes  to  give  the  exercise 
shown  in  Fig.  15,  which  consists  of  swinging  the 
right  arm  out,  the  left  arm  front,  turning  the  face  to 
the  left,  and  a  reverse  charge  with  the  right  leg  to  the 
front.  The  easy  exercises  are  swinging  the  arms  and 
turning  the  head.  The  difficult  part  (we  do  not  say  it  is 
new)  is  the  reverse  charge.  The  command  is,  "On  the 
count  one  take  a  reverse  charge  with  the  right  foot  to 
the  front ;  at  the  same  time  swing  the  right  arm  out, 
the  left  arm  front,  and  turn  the  head  to  the  left.  Heady, 
One!11  A  study  of  the  exercise  or  posture  shows  that 
the  arms,  head,  and  leg  go  in  different  directions,  which 
is  harder  than  having  all  go  in  the  same  direction.  Four 
members  of  the  body  move  at  once,  which  is  a  more 
complicated  exercise  than  using  one  member.  Three  of 
the  movements  are  easy,  one  is  hard.  The  movement  of 
the  head  or  either  arm  is  automatic,  but  the  combination 
of  arm  and  head  movements  in  different  directions  is 
not.  Therefore  the  command  must  be  so  given  that  this 
will  be  made  plain  to  the  pupil.  The  charging  motion 
is  a  reverse  one.  The  direction  associated  with  the  right 
foot  is  to  the  right ;  we  want  the  foot  to  go  to  the  front. 
Therefore  the  command  will  thus  be  emphasized  :  "  On 
the  count  one  take  a  reverse  charge  with  the  right  leg 
to  the  front  (short  pause),  at  the  same  time  swing  the 
right  arm  out  (pause),  the  left  arm  front  (pause),  and 
turn  the  face  to  the  left.  Ready  (pause),  ONE  !"  It  is 
more  than  likely  that  the  majority  will  take  the  posture 
correctly. 
When  giving  commands  it  is  imperative  that  certain 


170  METHODS  OF   TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

words  be  emphasized.  The  emphasis  must  be  on  work 
that  is  not  automatic.  There  should  be  pauses,  not  too 
long,  that  the  pupil  may  grasp  the  idea.  The  command 
should  not  be  too  long,  else  the  pupil  forgets.  It  should 
not  be  too  short,  as  it  may  not  be  explicit.  Remember 
this  rule  :  Make  the  commands  simple  and  clear,  as  the 
class  does  an  exercise  according  to  its  interpretation  of 
the  teacher's  words. 

Few,  very  few  teachers  make  a  study  of  the  wording 
of  a  command,  but  all  admit  that  commands  are  neces- 
sary, and  all  give  them,  but  all  do  not  get  the  same  re- 
sults. One  teacher  says  turn,  another  twist;  one  says 
flex  and  extend,  another  bend  and  straighten.  Circling 
and  swinging  are  not  synonymous.  The  first  applies  to 
all  circles  made  with  clubs  or  bells,  the  second  to  the 
pendulum  motion  of  arms  or  legs.  Foot  placing  and 
foot  stepping  are  often  applied  to  the  same  exercise. 
Step  the  right  foot  forward,  and  take  one  step  forward 
with  the  right  foot  are  not  the  same,  but  are  frequently 
used  by  teachers  in  either  sense.  If  instructors  will  be 
careful  about  not  expressing  commands  in  several  differ- 
ent ways  to  produce  one  and  the  same  result,  we  shall 
soon  have  a  start  made  to  establish  a  nomenclature  in 
American  gymnastics. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

HINTS  ON  TEACHING  A  CLASS  OF  BOYS. 

"A  BOY,"  says  Plato,  "  is  the  most  vicious  of  all  wild 
beasts."  It  is  true  that  they  are  hard  to  manage  in  the 
gymnasium,  not  because  they  are  naturally  vicious  or 
bad,  but  because  of  the  surplus  of  animal  spirits  which 
keeps  them  in  constant  motion.  The  teacher  must  re- 
member that  it  is  well  for  the  boy  to  dispose  of  this 
"  animal  life,"  and  that  by  switching  it  in  the  right  direc- 
tion she  can  turn  it  to  good  account,  thus  preventing  the 
disorder  and  unpleasantness  which  will  surely  arise  if 
the  teacher  does  not  understand  boy  nature.  It  requires 
an  artist  to  teach  a  child,  but  it  requires  an  artist  and  a 
master  to  teach  a  boy.  Some  of  the  essential  features  of 
successful  teaching  are  these  : 

In  the  first  place,  boys  must  be  kept  busy  from  the 
time  they  enter  the  gymnasium  until  they  leave  it. 
Again,  they  must  be  kept  interested  in  the  lesson.  No 
teacher  can  successfully  conduct  a  class  of  this  character 
if  the  boys  dislike  the  work.  The  result  is  too  well 
known,  the  harsh,  imperative  commands,  the  driving  of 
the  boys,  as  one  would  drive  animals  with  a  whip,  the 
incessant  threats,  the  confusion,  the  general  dissatisfac- 
tion. Interest,  therefore,  is  an  important  feature. 

The  boys  must  be  kept  in  order.  The  question  arises 
now,  What  is  meant  by  order  in  a  boys'  class?  perfect 

171 


172  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

silence,  no  whispering,  no  movement  of  the  body  ?  No. 
Nothing  is  gained  by  compelling  the  boys  to  maintain 
perfect  silence.  They  cannot  be  kept  perfectly  still,  there- 
fore allow  them  to  whisper,  and  during  the  short  inter- 
vals of  rest  allow  them  to  converse  with  each  other  and 
to  move  around  some.  The  class  in  light  gymnastics,  of 
course,  is  kept  busy,  and  will  not  have  the  opportunity 
to  converse  or  to  make  bodily  movements  other  than 
those  which  are  given  by  the  teacher.  In  heavy  gym- 
nastics, however,  it  is  different.  Here  the  boys  must 
wait  while  the  rest  of  the  class  are  taking  their  turns  on 
the  bars,  bucks,  or  rings.  The  busy  boy  is  well  looked 
after ;  the  one  who  is  at  leisure  is  not.  He  will  therefore 
amuse  himself  by  striking,  pushing,  or  pulling  his  com- 
panions, by  leaving  the  ranks,  climbing  the  ropes,  jump- 
ing on  other  pieces  of  apparatus,  or  playing  with  the 
chest  weights.  This,  of  course,  must  not  be  tolerated. 
Let  the  boys  laugh  and  talk,  but  not  shout ;  allow  them 
some  latitude,  but  under  no  circumstances  permit  a  boy 
to  leave  the  ranks  and  touch  another  piece  of  appa- 
ratus. 

I  will  digress  at  this  point  long  enough  to  say  that  if  a 
certain  hour  is  set  aside  for  the  gymnastic  training  of  a 
boy,  he  should  not  be  allowed  to  go  on  the  floor  before 
that  time  nor  to  remain  after  the  lesson  is  finished.  If 
the  teacher  allows  the  boys  to  violate  this  rule  and  to 
play  011  the  gymnasium  floor,  then  he  should  at  least  see 
that  all  apparatus  is  pulled  out  of  their  reach  and  that 
they  are  not  permitted  to  lower  it. 

Discipline  forms  an  important  part  of  a  boy's  training. 
Make  few  rules,  but  enforce  them.  The  boy  will  very 


HINTS  ON  TEACHING  A  CLASS  OF  BOYS.     173 

soon  know  whether  the  teacher  intends  to  do  this,  and 
he  will  obey  them  or  disobey  them  according  to  his 
opinion  of  the  teacher.  If  a  rule  is  made,  it  must  be 
enforced.  The  first  boy  who  violates  it  must  meet  with 
prompt  and  speedy  punishment.  There  can  be  no  dilly- 
dallying, delaying,  or  apologizing.  Sp'encer  has  said 
that  the  boy  who  picks  up  a  hot  coal  will  be  burned ; 
the  second  time  he  picks  up  a  coal  he  will  be  burned ; 
the  third  time  he  attempts  to  do  this  he  will  be  burned. 
Let  the  teacher  of  gymnastics  learn  from  this.  A  boy 
violates  a  law,  he  is  punished  ;  he  violates  it  a  second 
time,  he  is  punished.  The  third  time  he  knows  better, 
and  he  forms  a  better  opinion  of  the  teacher,  he  likes 
him  better,  and  the  parents  are  satisfied. 

There  is  nothing  that  will  cause  disorder  quicker  than 
poor  discipline.  Many  teachers  are  afraid  of  certain 
boys.  They  are  not  willing  to  incur  the  wrath  or  dis- 
pleasure of  the  parents,  or  they  know  that  such  and  such 
a  boy  is  the  son  of  one  of  the  trustees,  the  principal  of 
the  school,  or  some  man  of  prominence  in  the  com- 
munity. They  are  afraid  to  punish  these  boys.  This  of 
course  will  hot  do.  Any  boy,  regardless  of  name  and 
position,  must  expect  to  suffer  the  penalty  of  violating  a 
law.  It  has  been  my  pleasure  to  teach  boys  for  nearly 
fifteen  years,  and  I  have  yet  to  have  any  serious  trouble 
with  such  parents,  if  I  punished  their  boys.  I  have 
found  that,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  boy  who  is 
punished  for  wrong-doing  does  not  complain  at  home. 
Only  that  one  who  has  been  wrongly  punished  will 
complain,  and  of  course  he  has  a  right  to  do  so.  In  such 
a  case  it  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  settle  the  matter 


174  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

rightly.  The  instructor  in  gymnastics  who  makes  a 
mistake  will,  at  times,  be  obliged  to  acknowledge  it.  .  If 
he  does  not  he  loses  prestige  with  the  class. 

The  advice  given  by  McLaren,  in  his  work  on  heavy 
gymnastics,  is  good  :  Do  not  attempt  to  have  perfect 
discipline  from"  boys  in  heavy  gymnastics,  but  approach 
as  near  as  possible  this  ideal  when  teaching  light  work. 
Make  allowance  for  the  animal  spirits  and  the  life  of 
your  boys. 

We  all  have  to  deal  with  the  bad  boy  in  the  class.  He 
is  found  everywhere.  He  is  unruly  at  home,  mischiev- 
ous in  school,  mean  with  the  other  boys.  It  is  not  wise 
to  spend  too  much  time  with  this  boy  before  the  other 
members  of  the  class.  Let  him  understand  at  the  start 
that  you  will  not  be  trifled  with,  and  that  you  do  not  in- 
tend to  keep  the  other  members  of  the  class  waiting 
while  you  punish  him.  It  is  not  wise  for  you  to  lose 
your  temper  and  scold  the  entire  class  just  to  punish 
one  boy.  It  seems  cowardly.  An  angry  teacher  cannot 
control  boys.  Do  not,  therefore,  lose  your  temper  with 
this  refractory  lad,  but  send  him  at  once  to  his  home,  or 
to  your  office,  and  deal  with  him  after  the  rest  of  the 
boys  have  gone.  It  is  often  the  case  that  the  boys  them- 
selves will  punish  such  a  comrade  by  their  general 
opinion  of  him. 

Do  not  give  to  your  boys  too  much  light  work.  Have 
you  ever  watched  a  number  of  children  when  they  were 
allowed  to  enter  a  gymnasium  for  the  first  time  ?  If  you 
have  not  I  should  advise  you  to  do  so,  and  learn  from 
your  own  observation.  What  do  they  do  at  first  ?  The 
boys  rush  for  the  ropes,  they  climb  upon  the  ladders, 


HINTS  ON  TEACHING  A  CLASS  OF  BOYS.      175 

they  put  their  legs  through  the  rings,  swing  on  the 
trapeze,  jump  over  the  sticks,  "  shin  up  "  the  poles. 

What  lesson  are  we  to  learn  from  this?  That  the  in- 
teresting part  of  the  gymnasium  to  these  children — and 
I  include  under  this  head  both  boys  and  girls — is  the 
heavy  apparatus.  They  are  fond  of  climbing,  swinging, 
jumping,  and  leaping,  but  they  do  not  like  free  and  light 
gymnastics.  I  should  therefore  give  to  my  classes 
plenty  of  heavy  work,  and  should  include  in  the  lesson 
games  and  contests.  One  successful  teacher  of  boys 
said  that  he  knew  "  the  nature  of  the  beasts,"  and  that 
he  was  successful  because  he  compelled  them  to  use  their 
own  energies,  and  he  took  advantage  of  their  own  de- 
sires. If  play  is  the  strong,  the  controlling  passion  of  a 
child,  then  turn  it  to  use  in  the  gymnasium.  The 
teacher  must  have  a  method,  must  follow  out  certain 
plans.  There  must  be  progression.  No  teacher  of  gym- 
nastics should  keep  the  class  at  the  same  work  day  after 
day.  They  must  advance.  This  is  especially  true  in 
free  work.  I  have  often  told  my  boys  that  it  was  neces- 
sary for  them  to  take  a  certain  amount  of  medicine  in 
the  gymnasium,  have  made  some  fun  of  the  light  work, 
and  we  have  gone  through  this  part  of  the  lesson,  arous- 
ing a  certain  amount  of  interest. 

You  can  keep  the  attention  of  a  class  of  this  kind  by 
frequently  giving  them  a  lesson  in  "  developing  work." 
Take  for  the  subject  of  a  lesson  the  muscles  of  the  arms, 
allow  them  to  use  light  iron  dumb  bells,  or  take  the  one- 
pound  wooden  bell,  and  give  each  exercise  from  twenty 
to  fifty  times.  There  is  no  reason  why  we  should  give 
an  exercise  eight  or  sixteen  times  except  that,  in  the  case 


176  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

of  piano  accompaniment,  it  is  better  to  make  the  changes 
at  the  end  of  a  measure.  In  developing  work  do  not 
always  use  the  music.  Give  a  certain  number  of  move- 
ments for  the  biceps,  then  for  the  triceps.  Exercises  are 
taken  for  the  front  and  the  back  of  the  forearm.  Fre- 
quently at  the  close  of  the  lesson  measurements  of  the 
arms  are  taken,  and  the  boys  are  greatly  interested  in 
the  little  increase  they  have  made. 

Fun  is  a  good  weapon  to  make  use  of  in  teaching  boys. 
Make  the  lesson  lively,  start  the  pupils  laughing.  A 
good  joke  does  no  harm.  Boys  are  greatly  interested  in 
what  the  college  men  do,  and  it  is  well  for  the  teacher 
to  become  acquainted  with  college  methods  and  to  give 
the  series  of  exercises  that  are  used  by  the  members  of 
the  crew,  the  nine,  and  the  teams. 

The  teacher  must  be  on  the  lookout  for  the  timid  boy. 
He  will  hold  back  from  jumping  exercises,  he  will  drop 
out  of  the  contests,  he  will  hide  rather  than  do  the  high 
jumping.  He  is  afraid  of  his  comrades,  and  shrinks 
from  their  laughter.  This  child  should  be  dealt  with,  if 
the  teacher  has  time,  at  the  close  of  the  lesson.  By  tak- 
ing him  apart  from  the  rest,  he  can  be  taught  to  jump 
over  the  stick,  to  take  a  standing  broad  jump,  and  per- 
haps to  hang  by  his  knees  on  the  bar.  All  boys  are  not 
alike,  and  the  lesson  cannot  be  likened  to  a  coat  that 
will  fit  each  member  of  the  class. 

The  reckless  boy  must  be  held  in  check.  He  is  found 
wherever  the  boys  congregate.  He  will  do  just  a  little 
more  than  any  one  else ;  he  climbs  higher,  he  tries  to 
jump  farther,  he  does  many  tricks  that  are  dangerous. 
He  should  be  repressed. 


HINTS  ON  TEACHING  A  CLASS  OF  BOYS.     177 

There  is  the  fat  boy,  who  is  the  butt  of  the  class.  They 
laugh  at  his  attempts,  they  find  much  merriment  in  his 
failure  to  execute  the  tricks.  He  laughs  with  them,  but 
in  the  majority  of  cases  he  feels  it,  and  you  will  notice 
that  this  boy  will,  sooner  or  later,  drop  out  of  the  class, 
and  the  parents  will  complain  that  you  have  allowed  the 
other  boys  to  make  fun  of  him.  Under  no  conditions 
allow  the  boys  to  make  fun  of  any  one.  A  certain 
amount  of  laughter  is  tolerated  when  a  boy  makes  a 
mistake,  but  the  guying  and,  as  the  college  men  say, 
the  "  horsing  "  of  any  boy  must  not  be  tolerated. 

Look  out  for  accidents.  They  are  apt  to  happen  during 
the  periods  of  "break  ranks"  and  rest.  They  are  sure 
to  occur  if  the  scholars  are  allowed  to  go  on  to  the  floor 
before  the  class  begins  or  if  they  are  permitted  to  remain 
at  the  close  of  the  lesson.  An  accident  reflects  discredit 
upon  the  teacher,  whether  he  is  to  blame  or  not,  and 
the  parents  or  guardians  lay  this  up  against  the  gym- 
nasium. The  teacher,  of  course,  has  in  his  office  the 
necessary  bandages  for  binding  up  arms.  If  he  is  a 
physician  he  can  look  after  the  bruises.  If  he  is  not,  it 
is  well  for  him  to  have  taken  some  work  in  emergencies, 
that  he  may  prepare  the  case  for  the  physician. 

The  teacher  should  be  careful  about  giving  "  break 
ranks"  too  frequently.  This  division  of  the  hour  is  a 
good  one  :  the  class  is  called  into  line  and  receives  a 
short  drill  in  military  work  ;  but  it  is  not  wise  to  give 
instruction  in  this  line  of  gymnastics  unless  military 
discipline  accompanies  the  teaching.  Do  not  try  to 
teach  forming  twos  and  fours,  or  marching  four  or  five 
abreast,  unless  the  order  is  good.  Single  file  marching, 


178  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

marching  on  tiptoes  or  on  the  heels,  some  drills  in 
facings— this  simple  work  can  be  given.* 

Free  gymnastics  should  be  given  at  each  lesson.  The 
teacher  should  make  a  point  of  dealing  with  the  most 
common  physical  defects.  While  it  is  well  for  the  exer- 
cises to  be  arranged  according  to  the  laws  of  Ling,  if  the 
time  is  short  there  can  be  changes  made  in  the  day's 
order.  The  boys  should  be  drilled  at  every  lesson  in  ex- 
ercises for  widening  and  deepening  the  chest,  increasing 
the  capacity  of  the  lungs,  and  strengthening  the  action 
of  the  heart.  There  should  be  precipitant  or  running 
work  given,  and  certain  drills  for  developing  the  muscles 
along  the  spine. 

After  the  free  work,  a  few  minutes  should  be  set  aside 
for  a  drill  in  light  gymnastic  exercises  with  the  bells  or 
wands,  this  to  be  followed  by  the  regular  drill  in  heavy 
work,  and  the  lesson  to  close  with  a  jump  or  a  game. 

If  the  hour  were  to  be  divided  into  minutes  we  would 
arrange  the  lesson  about  as  follows  : 

Military  work,  about  8  minutes. 

Rest,  2  minutes. 

Free  work,  corrective  work,  and  running,  10  minutes. 

Rest,  3  minutes. 

Light  gymnastics,  bells,  wands,  or  clubs,  10  minutes. 

Rest,  3  minutes. 

Heavy  gymnastics  and  the  game,  the  rest  of  the  hour. 

See  that  the  boys  go  directly  to  the  dressing  room 
when  the  class  is  dismissed,  that  they  take  their  baths, 
dress  quietly,  and  leave  the  building.  Do  not  allow  the 

*  The  author  has  planned  lessons  for  a  boys'  class  for  one  year 
which  can  be  obtained  at  the  Yale  Gymnasium. 


HINTS  ON  TEACHING  A   CLASS  OF   BOYS.  179 

crowd  of  boys  to  go  rushing  pellmell  to  the  dressing 
room,  take  their  time  putting  on  their  clothing,  and  go 
home  when  they  please.  Give  them  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes  to  go  to  the  dressing  room,  make  the 
necessary  changes,  do  what  bathing  they  are  allowed 
to  do,  and  leave  the  building.  The  boy  who  remains 
after  this  time  should  be  carefully  questioned.  If  it  is 
found  that  his  clothing  has  been  tied  in  a  knot,  that  his 
shoes  have  been  taken  away,  or  that  he  lias  lost  any- 
thing, request  him  in  the  future  to  report  any  loss,  that 
assistance  may  be  given  him.  If  he  had  no  good  reason 
for  remaining  beyond  the  twenty  minutes,  punish  him — 
the  first  time  by  a  reprimand,  the  second  time  by  the 
loss  of  the  lesson.  A  reliable  monitor  should  be  stationed 
in  the  dressing  room  if  the  teacher  does  not  go  with  the 
boys,  but  he  certainly  should  accompany  them. 

One  unpleasant  element  in  the  handling  of  boys  is 
their  yelling  when  allowed  to  leave  the  classroom  and 
go  to  the  baths.  They  should  be  warned  beforehand, 
and  if  they  violate  the  rule  the  class  should  be 
punished— in  which  case  the  innocent  will  suffer  with 
the  guilty,  but  we  cannot  at  first  tell  which  boys  caused 
the  trouble.  The  honest  boys  would  tell  the  truth  and 
be  punished  for  their  honesty,  while  those  who  would  lie 
about  it  would  go  free,  and  be  rewarded  for  dishonesty. 
By  punishing  the  entire  class — which  may  be  preventing 
their  doing  the  work  which  they  most  liked  at  the  next 
lesson — the  yelling  would  very  soon  stop,  and  the  boys 
who  were  not  to  blame  would  settle  the  question  with 
those  who  were.  If  it  is  true,  and  we  know  it  is,  that 
boys  are  fond  of  yelling,  give  them  a  drill  in  counting 


180  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

aloud  and  let  them  have  a  class  yell,  or  work  them  with 
so  much  ardor  that  they  will  not  feel  like  indulging  in 
this  form  of  fun  after  they  have  finished  their  lesson. 

There  will  be  some  stealing  going  on  in  the  gym- 
nasium. The  teacher  should  request  the  boys  to  leave 
their  money  and  valuables  in  the  office.  Keys  to  the 
lockers  will  be  lost,  shoes  and  stockings  will  be  taken, 
costumes  will  be  missing ;  but  these  are  some  of  the 
thorns  which  prick  the  flesh  of  our  instructors  in  gym- 
nastics. We  must  expect  them.  We  must  use  a  great 
deal  of  care  in  dealing  with  a  case  of  theft.  The  best 
way  to  prevent  things  of  this  kind  is  for  the  teacher  to 
be  with  the  boys  when  they  come  to  the  gymnasium, 
while  they  are  exercising,  and  remain  with  them  until 
they  leave. 

One  word  about  the  class  falling  in  or  taking  foot- 
marks. A  bell  can  be  rung,  and  the  scholars  should  be 
given  from  fifteen  to  sixty  seconds  to  take  their  places 
on  the  floor.  It  is  well  for  the  teacher  to  notice,  before 
the  bell  is  rung,  that  the  boys  are  not  too  high  up  on 
the  ladders,  or  up  in  the  rafters  of  the  building,  so  that 
in  their  hurry  to  take  their  places  they  will  not  fall. 
Then  he  can  wait  the  allotted  number  of  seconds  after 
the  bell  has  rung,  when  the  boy  who  has  not  reported  or 
who  is  late  must  be  called  to  account.  Otherwise  several 
commands  are  given  for  the  class  to  fall  in,  a  great  deal 
of  shouting  is  indulged  in,  the  bell  is  rung  so  many 
times  that  it  loses  its  value.  The  bell  should  be  rung 
but  once;  the  teacher  waits  a  certain  number  of  seconds  ; 
those  who  are  late  are  punished.  The  question  is  very 
soon  settled  ;  the  boys  soon  learn  to  respond  rapidly.  If 


HINTS  ON  TEACHING  A  CLASS  OF  BOYS.      181 

these  rules  are  enforced  strictly  the  first  day,  they  must 
be  enforced  the  second  day  ;  at  no  time  can  the  teacher 
be  lax. 

Interest  has  been  aroused  by  placing  in  the  gymnasium 
a  bulletin  board,  upon  which  we  put  the  names  of  the 
boys  and  the  records  they  make.  We  organize,  in  nearly 
every  case,  a  gymnasium  society.  A  president,  vice- 
president,  secretary,  and  treasurer  are  elected,  also  a 
captain  of  the  teams.  The  secretary  keeps  the  names  of 
the  boys,  the  record  of  their  strength  tests,  their  height, 
weight,  and  lung  capacity — keeping  only  a  few,  not 
many.  The  boys  are  allowed  to  test  their  lungs  perhaps 
once  a  week  ;  we  see  and  note  the  number  of  times  they 
can  dip  on  the  bars  or  pull  up  on  the  horizontal  bar,  and 
the  record  is  kept.  This  is  a  simple  means  of  arousing 
and  maintaining  interest. 

It  will  be  found  that  a  certain  number  of  boys  cut  their 
lessons,  especially  the  first  part ;  they  will  come  in  late 
to  the  class.  The  boys  who  do  this  should  be  excused 
from  the  interesting  part  of  the  work.  They  will  in 
future  report  in  time  for  that  part  of  the  hour  which  is 
not  interesting  to  them,  viz.  :  light  work.  The  teacher 
must  remember  that  the  boy  should  have  an  opportunity 
to  give  reasons,  and  the  teacher  acts  as  the  judge  and 
settles  the  questions. 

Give  talks  on  health  and  morals,  tell  stories  while  the 
boys  are  seated  on  the  floor,  or  it  may  be  that  once  in  a 
while  they  can  be  called  together  in  some  recitation 
room  for  this  purpose. 

I  do  not  believe  that  women  should  teach  heavy  gym- 
nastics to  boys.  It  is  better  that  a  man  take  charge  of 


182  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

this  work.  The  reason  is  plain.  Boys  respect  those  who 
can  do  better  work  than  they  can.  The  teacher  is  se- 
verely criticised  by  the  members  of  the  boys'  class  if  it 
is  found  that  he  or  she  cannot  do  the  work  upon  the 
bars  or  upon  the  ticks  that  some  of  the  boys  in  the  class 
can  do.  It  is  galling  to  the  teacher,  and  not  pleasant 
for  the  class. 

The  teacher  must  overlook  some  things.  It  is  not  al- 
ways wise  to  stir  up  the  small  gossip  "which  is  found  in  a 
boys'  class,  nor  wise  to  make  a  great  ado  about  nothing. 

The  best  way  to  handle  boys  is  by  kindness.  Threaten 
as  little  as  possible. 

The  teacher  should  observe  the  faces  of  the  boys,  and 
in  case  any  one  shows  great  fatigue,  the  face  is  pale,  the 
breathing  irregular,  or  the  child  places  the  hand  upon 
the  side,  showing  that  there  is  pain,  this  boy  must  be 
looked  after,  the  heart  examined,  the  lungs  tested,  or 
he  should  be  allowed  to  go  to  the  office  and  rest.  Re- 
member that  the  small  boys  will  work  as  hard  as  they 
can  to  keep  up  with  big  boys,  that  the  weak  will  do,  or 
try  to  do,  the  work  of  the  strong. 

Avoid  being  partial.  Look  out  for  favoritism.  Once 
in  a  while  a  question  box  can  be  placed  in  the  gymna- 
sium and  the  boys  allowed  to  write  questions  and  place 
them  here.  These  are  to  be  answered  either  by  the 
teacher  or  by  some  member  of  the  class.  Whistling  is 
given  to  the  class  frequently,  also  singing.  Rope  splicing 
is  taught  if  the  class  is  small  and  the  time  will  permit. 
I  urge  the  teacher  to  make  a  study  of  books  that  will 
be  interesting  to  boys. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

MILITARY    GYMNASTICS. 

THE  chapter  devoted  to  this  subject  will  contain  sug- 
gestions for  the  beginner,  yet  it  may  be  that  those  who 
have  had  many  years'  experience  will  find  hints  that 
will  be  helpful. 

Only  a  few  of  the  maneuvers  have  been  described,  but 
by  studying  these  the  observant  teacher  will  be  able 
to  apply  the  principles  to  the  more  intricate  evolutions. 
The  text  is  taken  from  both  the  old  and  new  tactics,  but 
is  frequently  modified  from  the  requirements  of  soldiers 
to  those  of  pupils.  The  descriptions  are  for  single  ranks 
only.  The  teacher  who  wishes  to  know  more  of  mili- 
tary work  than  is  described  here  will  find  in  the  book 
entitled  "Light  Gymnastics,"  by  the  same  author,  a 
series  of  illustrated  marching  movements. 

The  position  of  attention.  An  analysis  of  the  position 
of  a  soldier  will  draw  our  attention  to  thirteen  points, 
with  all  of  which  the  instructor  should  be  familiar. 
The  question  "Why?"  is  so  frequently  asked  that  it  is 
at  times  embarrassing  to  the  teacher  if  she  has  not 
given  sufficient  study  to  the  subject  to  answer  readily. 
The  description  of  this  position,  taken  from  Upton,  is : 

Heels  on  the  same  line,  as  near  to  each  other  as  the 
conformation  of  the  body  will  permit. 

183 


184  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

The  feet  turned  out  equally,  forming  with  each  other 
an  angle  of  about  sixty  degrees. 

Knees  straight,  without  stiffness  of  body. 

The  body  erect  on  the  hips,  inclining  a  little  for- 
ward. 

Shoulders  square,  and  falling  equally. 

Arras  hanging  naturally. 

Elbows  near  the  body. 

Fingers  closed  and  extended,  thumb  along  the  first 
finger. 

Palms  of  the  hands  turned  slightly  to  the  front. 

Little  finger  behind  the  seam  of  the  trousers. 

Head  erect  and  to  the  front. 

Chin  slightly  drawn  in,  without  constraint. 

Eyes  straight  to  the  front,  and  striking  the  ground  at 
about  the  distance  of  fifteen  yards. 

The  new  tactics  have  modified  this  arrangement,  and 
give  for  the  position  of  a  soldier  the  following  rules  : 

Heels  on  the  same  line,  and  as  near  each  other  as  the 
conformation  of  the  man  permits. 

Feet  turned  out  equally  and  forming  with  each  other 
an  angle  of  about  sixty  degrees. 

Knees  straight,  without  stiffness. 

Body  erect  on  the  hips,  inclining  a  little  forward  ; 
shoulders  square,  and  falling  equally. 

Arms  and  hands  hanging  naturally,  backs  of  the  hands 
outward  ;  little  fingers  opposite  the  seams  of  the  tvou- 
sers  ;  elbows  near  the  body. 

Head  erect  and  square  to  the  front;  chin  slightly 
drawn  in,  without  constraint;  eyes  straight  to  the 
front. 


MILITARY  GYMNASTICS.  185 

The  Swedish  position  of  attention,  or,  as  it  is  termed, 
the  fundamental  standing  position,  is  this  : 

Heels  together  or  slightly  apart. 

Feet  at  an  angle  of  ninety  degrees. 

Knees  straight. 

Hips  carried  backward. 

Chest  forward  and  well  expanded. 

Shoulders  held  back  and  down. 

Head  erect. 

Chin  drawn  in. 

Arms  along  the  sides. 

Palms  flat,  on  the  outside  of  the  thighs,  and  drawn 
slightly  backward. 

Weight  of  the  body  carried  well  forward.* 

In  the  main  points  the  Swedish,  German,  and  Ameri- 
can fundamental  standing  positions  are  similar.  They 
vary  principally  in  detail.  It  is  not  our  intention  so 
much  to  discuss  the  merits  of  the  position,  but  rather 
how  we  shall  teach  it.  While  at  times  we  may  digress, 
and  speak  of  the  comparative  merits  of  this  or  that  ex- 
ercise or  position,  we  shall  try  to  explain  the  best 
method  of  presenting  the  subject,  this  being  more  the 
object  of  the  book. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  easy  to  commence  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  position  by  beginning  at  the  bottom  and  de- 
scribing the  angle  of  the  feet.  With  us  it  is  about  sixty 
degrees.  I  know  of  no  serious  objection  to  ninety  degrees, 
but  think  that  the  small  angle  is  the  more  natural  one. 
A  basic  attitude  of  ninety  degrees  is  stronger  than  one 
only  two  thirds  this  size.  It  is  easier  to  approximate  the 

*  Posse's  "  Handbook  of  School  Gymnastics." 


186  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

larger  base,  because  a  right  angle  is  formed.  The  heels 
should  touch,  if  the  calves  of  the  legs  are  not  too  large, 
or  the  child  not  knock-kneed. 

Pass  from  the  feet  to  the  knees,  which  are  held  as  close 
together  as  the  conformation  of  the  body  will  permit. 
It  may  be  well  to  warn  young  teachers  about  criticising 
pupils  for  not  touching  their  knees,  when  they  (the 
pupils)  are  bow-legged.  Scholars  who  have  this  defect 
are  apt  to  be  sensitive  about  it,  although  one  small  boy 
remarked,  when  the  teacher  criticised  him,  that  "his 
knees  were  not  on  speaking  terms."  Professor  Brosius, 
a  very  prominent  German  teacher  of  gymnastics,  said 
that  it  was  possible  to  overcome  this  defect  by  the  use  of 
will  power,  and  that  he  had  in  his  classes  young  men 
who  had  been  able  to  bring  their  knees  together  by  hold- 
ing the  correct  standing  position.  An  exaggerated 
movement  of  the  hips  backward  will  sometimes  assist 
the  scholar  in  touching  the  knees.  If  the  bow  in  the 
leg  extends  from  the  knee  to  the  ankle,  it  is,  of  course,  a 
different  matter. 

Pass  from  the  knees  to  the  hips,  which  should  be 
forced  back,  and  from  this  part  of  the  body  to  the  chest, 
which  should  be  well  arched.  By  giving  these  two 
commands  and  insisting  upon  their  being  obeyed,  we  do 
away  with  having  to  call  attention  to  the  prominent 
abdomen. 

Next  the  shoulders  engage  our  attention.  They  are 
level,  and  well  drawn  back.  Some  teachers  object  to 
using  the  two  terms,  "  arch  the  chest "  and  "draw  the 
shoulders  back,"  claiming  that  one  cannot  be  done 
without  the  other.  It  is  not  an  important  point  to  dis- 


MILITARY  GYMNASTICS.  187 

cuss.  By  calling  attention  to  the  two  parts  of  the  body 
additional  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  description. 

The  arms  should  hang  naturally  at  the  side,  with  the 
elbows  somewhat  back.  The  hand  is  in  what  is  termed 
the  fundamental  position,  viz.  :  fingers  close  and  ex- 
tended, thumb  along  the  first  finger.  The  position  of 
the  hand  may  be  taught  before  beginning  with  any 
other  part  of  the  body. 

The  head  is  erect,  the  eyes  to  the  front.  Call  attention 
to  the  fact  that  if  the  eyes  are  cast  down  the  head  drops 
forward.  For  the  same  reason,  do  not  allow  the  child  to 
look  up,  because  the  head  will  be  elevated  and  the  chin 
will  protrude.  Consequently  we  say  the  eyes  should  be 
cast  upon  the  ground  fifteen  yards  to  the  front.  It  is, 
perhaps,  clearer  to  say  to  the  pupil,  "Look  straight 
ahead."  According  to  the  directions  given,  the  chin  is 
slightly  drawn  in. 

We  have  now  finished  the  parts  of  the  body ;  let  us 
take  it  as  a  whole.  The  weight  is  inclined  somewhat 
forward  on  the  ballsx>f  the  feet.  This  enables  the  pupil 
to  start  off  promptly.  At  the  same  time  the  fore  part  of 
the  feet  form  a  more  springy  base  than  the  heels.  (See 
Fig.  8.) 

The  teacher  will  notice  that  we  began  this  description 
at  the  feet  and  went  up  to  the  head,  taking  the  parts  in 
turn.  This  method  of  teaching  is  not,  of  course,  so  good 
for  children,  who  are  too  young  to  appreciate  the  details. 
A  child  in  normal  physical  condition  naturally  stands 
well.  Children  are  taught  by  the  picture  method,  so  by 
referring  to  soldiers  and  asking  them  to  stand  as  they 
do,  we  get  better  results  than  from  a  description,  which 


188  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

is  almost  meaningless  to  them.  Very  frequently  the 
teacher  may  obtain  good  results  by  calling  to  the  plat- 
form a  well-built  boy  or  girl,  and  showing  the  class  what 
is  meant  by  the  proper  standing  position.  At  the  same 
time  she  can  have  the  child  stand  against  the  measuring 
pole,  to  show  how  easy  it  is  for  them  to  keep  the  head, 
shoulders,  hips,  calves,  and  heels  in  a  straight  line. 

The  position  of  attention  is  the  first  thing  we  teach  to 
classes.  It  is  important,  and  the  instructor  should  im- 
press it  upon  the  pupils  that  they  should  not  only  learn 
to  hold  the  body  well,  but  should  always  keep  it  so  while 
in  the  gymnasium  (or  out  of  it),  and  they  should  associate 
this  carriage  of  the  body  with  the  gymnasium. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  next  step  in  teaching  military 
work.  It  will  be  the  rest  which  follows  the  constrained 
position  of  attention.  The  command  is,  "  Company  in 
place,  rest!11  The  new  tactics  give  it,  "  Company,  at 
ease!"  The  former  command  is  preferable.  At  the 
word  of  execution,  the  pupil  is  allowed  at  first  to  stand 
upon  either  foot,  taking  the  position  natural  for  him. 
This  will  give  the  teacher  an  opportunity  to  observe  the 
easy  standing  position  of  the  pupils.  The  position  of 
"place  rest,"  advocated  by  Dr.  Eliza  Mosher  of  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  in  her  paper  entitled  "The  Influence  of  the 
Habitual  Posture  on  the  Symmetry  and  Health  of  the 
Body,"  should  be  known  by  all  gymnastic  teachers. 
(Fig.  16.) 

Scholars  who  are  in  the  habit  of  carrying  the  weight 
upon  the  right  foot  when  resting  should  change,  and 
allow  the  weight  to  rest  upon  the  other. 

facings.    We  use  under  this  heading,  right  or  left, 


OF  rax 
UNIVERSITT 


rtgsjwa*t»itaaa 


MILITARY  GYMNASTICS.  189 

right  or  left  oblique,  and  right  or  left  about  face.  The 
facings  seem  so  simple,  are  apparently  so  easy  to  execute, 
and  are  used  so  frequently,  that  little  importance  is 
attached,  not  only  to  their  being  accurately  done,  but  to  " 
being  correctly  taught.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  haste 
that  marks  our  teaching  crops  out,  and  the  result  is 
obvious.  The  teacher  who  neglects  the  rudiments  of^ 
military  drill  will  suffer  for  her  carelessness.  She  will 
lose  many  minutes,  later  in  the  season,  finding  fault 
with  the  class  for  doing  poor  work,  when  she  herself  is 
to  blame.  Therefore  spend  time  teaching-  a  class  to  face, 
first  to  the  right  and  then  to  the  left,  next  half  face  to 
the  right  and  the  left,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  right  oblique  or/ 
left  face.  Although  it  seems,  according  to  the  sequence 
of  movements,  that  the  oblique  should  be  taught  before 
the  full  right  or  left  face,  it  is  customary  to  teach  the 
ninety  degree  turn  first.  Not  enough  time  is  spent  in 
teaching  the  oblique  facings ;  consequently,  when  march- 
ing in  single  file  and  the  command  is  given,  "Column 
half  right  (or  left),  march!  "  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
scholars  do  not  clearly  understand  the  movement,  nor 
do  they  execute  it  well. 

I  have  taught,  and  shall  continue  to  teach,  the  facings 
in  this  manner:  With  the  body  as  one  piece,  turn  forty- 
five  degrees  or  a  right  oblique,  ninety  degrees  or  a  right 
face,  one  hundred  and  eighty  degrees  or  a  right  about 
face,  on  the  left  heel.  The  turns  to  the  left  are  to  be 
made  upon  the  same  heel.  This  simplifies  the  work.  The 
question  arises  at  once,  Why  not  use  the  Swedish  facing, 
or  that  found  in  the  new  tactics?  My  answer  is,  the 
former  is  very  simple,  easily  learned,  and  long  remem- 


190  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

bered.  I  have  not  found  it  so  with  the  other  facings.  It 
is  essential  that  the  body  be  well  balanced  and  smartly 
turned.  Avoid  facing  on  what  is  sometimes  termed  the 
instalment  plan— the  head  going  first,  the  shoulders 
next,  etc. 

The  facing,  as  described  by  Upton,  is  as  follows :  To 
the  right  or  left,  command,  ' '  Right  (or  left),  face  !  "  At 
the  command  face,  raise  the  right  foot  slightly,  face  to 
the  right,  turning  on  the  left  heel,  the  left  toe  slightly 
raised  ;  replace  the  right  heel  by  the  side  of  the  left  and 
on  the  same  line.  The  facings  to  the  left  are  executed 
upon  the  same  heel  as  the  facings  to  the  right. 

The  right  face,  as  given  in  the  new  tactics,  is  thus 
described:  Command,  "Right,  face!  "  Raise  slightly 
the  right  heel  and  left  toe  and  face  to  the  right,  turning 
on  the  left  heel,  assisted  by  a  slight  pressure  on  the  ball 
of  the  right  foot ;  replace  the  right  foot. 

There  is  little  in  this  method  of  facing  to  the  right  to 
commend  it.  It  is  awkward,  hard  to  teach,  difficult  to 
learn,  and  not  more  sure  to  produce  an  accurate  turn  of 
the  body  than  the  old  facing.  I  prefer  the  Swedish  plan, 
in  spite  of  the  argument  brought  against  it,  that  the  en- 
tire body  is  shifted  out  of  place  by  the  latter  facing.  In 
a  short  conversation  with  a  well-known  West  Point 
man,  he  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  facing  to  the 
right,  as  given  in  the  new  tactics,  was  not  satisfactory. 

The  Swedish  facing  is :  To  face  to  the  flank,  com- 
mand, "Right,  face!11  The  pupil  turns  on  his  right 
heel  ninety  degrees  to  the  right  and  supports  the  motion 
by  the  ball  of  the  left  foot ;  when  this  is  done  he  re- 
places his  left  foot  beside  the  right  one  in  fundamental 


MILITARY  GYMNASTICS.  191 

position.  Facing  to  the  right  is  done  on  the  right  heel, 
to  the  left  on  the  left. 

The  teacher,  of  course,  chooses  the  plan  that  best  suits 
him.  It  is  not  so  much  which  method  he  adopts,  but 
how  he  teaches  it.  The  about  facing  is  very  confusing 
to  the  pupil  who  tries  to  remember  the  different  ways. 
For  example,  there  is  the  about  face  of  the  common  sol- 
dier as  distinguished  from  that  of  the  officer  ;  there  are 
the  Swedish,  German,  and  the  new  tactics  about  face, 
in  all  five  kinds. 

To  the  rear.  Command,  "  About,  face  /"  At  the 
command  about,  turn  on  the  left  heel,  bring  the  left  toe 
to  the  front,  carry  the  right  foot  to  the  rear,  the  hollow 
opposite  to  and  three  inches  from  the  left  heel,  the  feet 
square  to  each  other.  At  the  command  /ace,  turn  on 
both  heels,  raise  the  toes  a  little,  face  to  the  rear,  and 
when  the  face  is  nearly  completed  raise  the  right  foot 
and  replace  it  by  the  side  of  the  left.  (Old  tactics.) 

To  the  rear.  Command,  "About,  /ace/"  Raise 
slightly  the  left  heel  and  right  toe,  face  to  the  rear, 
turning  to  the  right  on  the  right  heel  and  the  ball  of  the 
left  foot ;  replace  the  left  foot  beside  the  right.  (New 
tactics.) 

Why  bother  the  teacher  or  pupils  with  so  many  terms  ? 
I  do  not  like  the  old  tactics  face  for  the  soldier,  as  it 
is  hard  to  teach  and  remember,  and  too  complicated. 
The  new  tactics  and  Swedish  about  face  are  similar,  and 
both  are  good  ;  the  about  face  of  the  officer  is  an  accu- 
rate and  a  graceful  one ;  but  the  simplest  of  all,  to  my 
mind,  is  the  German  method.  There  is  truth  in  the 
argument  that  one  is  apt  to  lose  his  balance,  but  I  have 


192  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

not  found  that  the  pupil  is  long  bothered  by  this 
trouble. 

The  teacher  must  not  attempt  to  teach  any  facing 
movement,  or  illustrate  it,  without  having  practiced  it 
carefully  before  a  looking  glass,  if  this  is  possible. 

Marking  time.  Being  in  march.  Command,  "  Mark 
time,  march  /  "  At  the  command  march,  given  as  either 
foot  is  coming  to  the  ground,  continue  the  cadence  and 
make  a  semblance  of  marching,  without  gaining  ground, 
by  alternately  advancing  each  foot  about  half  its  length, 
and  bringing  it  back  on  a  line  with  the  other. 

It  is  not  hard  to  teach  marking  time,  consequently  but 
little  space  will  be  given  to  this  subject.  Our  explana- 
tion of  the  method  of  teaching  is  this  :  Notice  that  the 
left  foot  moves  first,  not  only  in  marking  time,  but  also 
in  marching.  Therefore  by  your  drill  impress  this  on  the 
minds  of  the  pupils,  so  that  the  movement  will  become 
automatic.  This  may  be  done  in  several  ways,  one  of 
which  is  to  permit  the  scholar  to  first  stamp  lightly  with 
the  left  foot,  next  to  tap  the  floor  with  the  ball  of  the 
same  foot,  then  to  swing  the  left  foot  forward  one  half 
its  length,  and  finally  to  teach  the  regular  method.  The 
teacher  must  call  attention  to  the  distance  allowed  for 
swinging  the  foot,  otherwise  the  pupils  will  soon  throw 
the  foot  forward  more  than  half  its  length.  Analysis  of 
marking  time  shows  that,  at  the  preliminary  command, 
"Company,  mark  time  ! "  the  pupil  transfers  the  weight 
to  the  right  foot.  This  slight  motion  of  the  body  is  an 
important  feature  of  the  drill.  When  the  command 
of  execution,  Mark!  or,  as  the  tactics  give  it,  March! 
is  given,  the  left  knee  is  slightly  bent,  the  heel  is  lifted 


MILITARY  GYMNASTICS.  193 

from  the  floor,  the  thigh  is  sufficiently  flexed  to  permit 
the  leg  to  swing  forward  a  short  distance.  At  the  finish 
the  foot  falls  back  to  position,  the  weight  is  transferred, 
and  the  same  operation  is  gone  through  with  the  other 
leg.  Attention  is  called  to  the  knee  bending,  that  the 
teacher  may  know  how  to  prevent  the  stiff  leg  marking 
time.  We  can  tell  by  the  action  of  the  heads  whether 
the  members  of  the  class  are  marking  time  in  unison. 

The  Germans,  when  marking  time,  accent  the  move- 
ment, extending  the  foot  forward  and  downward,  point- 
ing with  the  toes.  The  teacher  may  have  noticed  that, 
when  the  scholars  take  an  exercise  that  is  noisy,  such  as 
stamping  the  foot  or  slapping  the  hands,  they  work  more 
in  unison  than  when  executing  a  movement  in  silence. 
Therefore,  make  use  of  this,  and  begin  marking  time  by 
making  a  noise,  as  stamping  the  foot.  This  method  is 
used  not  only  for  children,  but  even  for  adults.  I  have 
often  had  more  difficulty  in  instructing  a  class  of  teachers 
to  mark  time  than  children,  but  the  principles  of  teach- 
ing a  child  are  good  for  adults  too. 

The  start.  The  start,  in  marching,  must  receive  atten- 
tion, as  the  relative  position  of  the  files  and  the  even- 
ness of  the  lines  depend,  to  some  extent,  upon  it.  It  is 
better,  therefore,  to  drill  the  pupils  when  standing  in  a 
line,  i.  e.,  side  by  side,  than  when  in  a  file,  one  back  of 
the  other.  Use  the  new  tactics  so  far  as  possible,  when 
drilling  a  line  ;  that  is,  allow  six  or  eight  inches  between 
persons.  This  may  be  secured  by  permitting  them  to 
place  the  left  hand  on  the  hip.  (See  aligning  and  falling 
in. )  The  command  may  be  given,  "  Company,  forward, 
march  !  "  At  the  command  forward,  the  pupils  trans- 


194  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

fer  the  weight  to  the  right  foot  and  incline  the  body 
forward.  Drill  the  class  in  this  movement  several  times, 
bringing  them  back  to  the  fundamental  standing  posi- 
tion, or  attention,  by  the  command,  "As  you  were." 
At  the  command  march,  the  pupil  steps  off'  briskly  with 
the  left  foot,  taking  a  natural  length  step.  It  is  of  little 
use  to  tell  the  members  of  a  class  to  step  twenty  or 
twenty-five  inches.  Point  or  aim  the  body  at  a  certain 
point  on  the  opposite  wall,  and  march  inva  direct  line  to 
the  front.  The  step  should  be  even  and  the  cadence 
regular.  In  our  marching,  we  take  about  65  steps  a 
minute  for  common  time,  90  steps  for  quick  time,  48  for 
slow,  and  from  120  to  180  for  double  time. 

The  halt.  The  command  halt  is  given  at  the  discretion 
of  the  teacher,  who  says,  "  Company,  halt !  "  The  com- 
mand of  execution  is  given  as  either  foot  comes  to  the 
floor,  plant  this  foot,  take  one  additional  step,  and  bring 
the  heels  together.  This  allows  them  time  to  think,  and 
the  halt  is  made  on  the  third  count.  Later  the  company 
can  halt  on  one  or  two  counts.  The  halt  from  marking 
time  is  generally  made,  during  the  early  teaching,  in 
two  counts  after  the  command  ;  thus,  "Company,  halt, 
one,  two ! "  Finally  the  halt  can  be  made  on  one  count. 
The  pupils  must  be  thoroughly  drilled  on  the  halt  and 
on  the  start.  Here,  as  before,  we  may  make  use  of  a 
noisy  start  and  stop,  permitting  the  pupils  to  stamp  the 
left  foot  on  the  first  step  after  the  command,  "  Company, 
forward,  march  f"  and  to  repeat  the  stamp  on  the  last 
count  after  the  command  halt.  This  plan  of  teaching  is 
used  by  both  the  Swedes  and  the  Germans. 

It  is  out  of  the  question  for  a  teacher  to  expect  to  have 


MILITARY  GYMNASTICS.  195 

a  well-drilled  class  if  she  does  not  pay  strict  attention  to 
these  details.  They  are  not  always  observed  in  our  mili- 
tary companies,  nor  do  pupils  fancy  them,  but  the 
choice  is  not  to  be  left  to  the  pupil.  The  start  and  halt 
in  marching  may  be  better  taught  and  learned  if  the 
teacher  will  drill  the  class  in  taking  first  one,  then  two, 
and  finally  three  or  more  steps,  thus  :  The  teacher  after 
showing  the  exercise  commands,  "Class  one  step  for- 
ward, counting  aloud,  march!"  At  the  command 
march)  the  scholar  advances  the  left  foot  and  counts 
one ;  he  brings  the  right  foot  alongside  of  the  left,  and 
counts  two.  Thus  he  has  taken  one  step,  but  has  counted 
two.  In  this  way  he  will  advance  two  steps  and  count 
three,  or  three  steps  and  count  four,  there  being  one 
more  count  than  step,  the  halt  being  made  on  the  last 
count.  In  taking  steps,  the  pupil  advances  first  the  left, 
and  then  the  right  foot. 

An  example  of  how  to  teach  a  step  may  be  given  here, 
and  it  will  be  of  service  to  the  new  teacher.  She  says, 
11 1  want  the  members  of  the  class  to  take  one  step  for- 
ward, this  way"  ;  she  shows  the  exercise.  The  picture 
has  been  drawn,  and  the  class  has  a  better  idea  of  what 
the  teacher  wants  them  to  do.  She  then  says,  "  As  you 
take  the  step  forward,  count,  this  way";  she  again 
illustrates  the  movement  and  counts.  By  this  time  the 
dullest  one  in  the  class  understands  what  is  to  be  done. 
The  teacher  then  says,  "At  the  command  march,  take 
one  step"  ;  and  in  a  firm,  decided  way  she  repeats  the 
command  and  gives  the  word  of  execution.  It  has 
taken  but  a  short  time,  the  exercise  has  been  carefully 
illustrated,  and  the  movement  should  be  well  done. 


196  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

Change  step.  Command,  "Change  step,  march!" 
At  the  command  march,  given  as  the  right  foot  comes  to 
the  ground,  the  left  foot  is  advanced  and  planted ;  the 
toe  of  the  right  is  then  advanced  near  the  heel  of  the 
left,  the  recruit  again  stepping  off  with  the  left.  The 
change  on  the  right  foot  is  similarly  executed,  the  com- 
mand march  being  given  as  the  left  foot  strikes  the 
ground.  (New  tactics.) 

The  pupil  will  notice  that  the  command  is,  "Change 
step,  march  /  "  I  do  not  like  the  word  march,  but  prefer 
to  repeat  the  word  change,  as  it  produces  the  same  result 
and  is  more  closely  associated  with  the  movement  than 
the  word  march. 

We  had  in  one  of  our  military  companies  an  officer 
who  seemed  to  know  Upton  nearly  by  heart.  He  could 
give  command  after  command  without  omitting  a  single 
word,  his  face  was  animated,  his  teaching  full  of  life ; 
but  when  the  test  came  later  in  the  season,  and  his  men 
were  drilled  in  the  preliminary  movements,  it  was  found 
that  they  did  not  do  the  work  so  well  as  the  soldiers 
taught  by  less  brilliant  officers.  One  fault  was  his  rapid 
speaking,  and  the  "parrot"  fashion  in  which  he  gave 
the  commands.  He  did  not  take  enough  time  to  explain 
the  movements,  he  preferred  to  "  rattle  off"  commands 
in  his  glib  fashion,  and  he  lost  his  patience  when  the 
soldiers  were  apparently  dull.  The  fault,  however,  was 
his  own,  and  it  was  due  to  this  that,  even  in  the  teaching 
how  to  change  step,  he  failed. 

This  is  a  difficult  exercise  to  teach.  It  may  be  associ- 
ated with  another  that  will  be  given  very  soon,  viz.: 
4<To  the  rear,  march!"  Instructors  seem  to  have  as 


MILITARY  GYMNASTICS.  197 

much  trouble  teaching  these  two  maneuvers  as  any  of 
the  simple  drills  found  in  military  work.  There  is  a 
reason  for  this.  The  movement  is  hard  to  teach  because 
the  teacher  confuses  the  right  and  the  left  foot.  It  is 
not  easy  to  say  the  word  march  or  change  just  before  the 
right  foot  comes  to  the  floor,  immediately  after  which 
command  the  movement  is  executed,  consequently  there 
is  little  time  in  which  to  think.  The  command 
"  Change  step  ! "  may  be  given  at  any  time,  but  the  final 
word  of  execution  must  be  given  at  a  certain  time. 

To  teach  successfully  these  seemingly  simple  exercises, 
the  teacher  should  practice  the  movements  before  giving 
them  to  the  class,  in  order  that  she  may  bring  back  to 
her  own  mind  the  teaching  she  received  years  before. 

No  command  or  movement  can  be  well  taught  until 
it  has  been  analyzed  by  the  instructor.  Changing  step 
should  be  one  of  the  first  things  taught  in  a  school.  If 
it  is  a  difficult  matter  for  an  adult  to  learn  this,  how 
much  harder  will  it  be  for  a  child,  and  yet  few  children 
keep  step  when  taking  their  first  lessons.  I  have  never 
attempted  to  teach  a  child  this  movement  as  I  should 
teach  it  to  an  adult.  The  method  of  instructing  little 
ones  is  by  first  teaching  them  which  is  the  left  foot,  then 
compelling  them  to  stamp  the  left  foot  upon  a  certain 
count,  and,  without  going  into  the  details  of  the  move- 
ment, I  have  found  that  they  would  in  a  short  time 
change  step,  and  do  it  correctly.  Changing  step  is  the 
same  movement  that  a  schoolgirl  makes  when  she  goes 
skipping  along  the  sidewalk.  It  is  the  '*  hippety-hop" 
that  children  know  so  well.  The  movement  may  be 
more  quickly  learned  by  adults  if  they  are  permitted  to 


198  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

take  one  half  the  movement  a  number  of  times  in  suc- 
cession ;  i.  e.j  to  slide  the  right  foot  forward,  bring  the 
left  foot  up  to  the  heel  of  the  right,  step  oft*  again  with 
the  right,  and  so  on.  By  doing  this,  they  associate  the 
special  movement  in  changing  step  with  the  command. 

The  command  change  as  the  left  foot  comes  to  the 
floor  is  not  often  given. 

Side  step.  Command,  "Right  (or  left)  step,  march!" 
Carry  the  right  foot  twelve  inches  to  the  right,  keeping 
knees  straight  and  shoulders  square  to  the  front ;  as  soon 
as  the  right  foot  is  planted,  'bring  the  left  foot  to  the  side 
of  it,  and  continue  the  movement,  observing  the  cadence 
for  each  foot,  as  explained  for  quick  time.  The  side  step 
is  not  executed  in  double  time.  (New  tactics.) 

This  is  a  simple  drill,  easily  taught  and  soon  learned. 
The  only  difficulty  in  teaching  this  is  that  the  scholars 
slide  the  feet,  which  should  not  be  allowed  ;  they  take 
steps  that  are  too  long.  The  command  halt  is  given  as 
one  foot  comes  to  the  floor,  the  foot  is  planted  and  the 
other  brought  alongside  (generally  taken  on  one  count). 
In  class  drills  little  is  gained  by  giving  quick  time,  there- 
fore the  side  step  is  given  in  common  time.  Avoid  the 
marking  time  movement  of  the  foot  in  side  step  march- 
ing. Take  this  step. 

Back  step.  Command,  "  Backward,  march  !  "  Step 
back  with  the  left  foot  fifteen  inches  straight  to  the  rear, 
measuring  from  heel  to  heel,  then  with  the  right,  and 
so  on,  the  feet  alternating.  At  the  command  halt,  bring 
back  the  foot  in  front  to  the  side  of  the  one  in  rear. 
The  back  step  is  used  for  short  distances  only  and  is  not 
executed  in  double  time. 


MILITARY  GYMNASTICS.  199 

The  short  step,  side  step,  and  back  step  may  be  exe- 
cuted from  mark  time  and  conversely. 

The  back  step  is  an  easy  movement.  There  are  no 
special  rules  for  teaching  it.  It  is  well,  however,  to 
drill  the  class  in  halting  from  the  backward  march.  It 
can  be  done  in  two  counts. 

To  march  to  the  rear.  Being  in  march,  the  instructor 
commands,  "To  the  rear,  march ! "  At  the  command 
march,  given  as  the  right  foot  strikes  the  ground,  ad- 
vance and  plant  the  left  foot ;  then  turn  on  the  balls  of 
both  feet,  face  to  the  right  about,  and  immediately  step 
off  with  the  left  foot. 

We  have  to  teach  what  seems  to  be  a  simple  exercise, 
and  one  which  does  not  receive  a  great  deal  of  attention  in 
many  of  our  military  schools.  There  is  a  way,  however, 
of  teaching  the  movement  that  will  be  of  assistance  to 
the  leader.  In  the  first  place,  the  step  must  be  so  well 
learned  by  the  instructor,  that  when  standing  before  a 
class  it  will  be  "second  nature"  to  her.  Here,  as  in 
changing  step,  the  teacher  will  have  some  trouble  in  re- 
membering the  feet ;  that  is,  she  will  confuse  the  right 
and  the  left.  The  command  "To  the  rear  !"  may  be 
given  at  any  time  ;  the  command  march  must  be  given 
as  the  right  foot  strikes  the  ground.  This  will  permit 
the  scholar  to  advance  the  left,  during  which  short 
period  he  has  an  opportunity  to  think,  then  turn  180 
degrees  to  the  right,  pivoting  upon  the  balls  of  both  feet, 
and  start  off  in  the  new  direction  with  the  left  foot. 

It  is  a  good  plan  for  the  teacher  to  watch  people  on  the 
street  and  to  repeat  the  command,  always  thinking  the 
word  march  as  the  right  foot  comes  to  the  ground.  No 


200  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

one  can  instruct  a  class  well  who  is  obliged  to  think  a 
great  deal  of  her  own  work.  Marching  to  the  rear  is 
more  easily  learned  if  the  scholars  are  permitted  to 
stamp  the  left  foot  after  they  have  turned  180  degrees. 

Double  time.  The  length  of  the  full  step  in  double 
time  is  thirty-six  inches ;  the  cadence  is  at  the  rate  of 
180  steps  per  minute.  To  march  in  double  time  the  com- 
mand is,  "  Forward,  double  time,  march!  " 

At  the  command  forward,  throw  the  weight  of  the 
body  on  the  right  leg ;  at  the  command  double  time, 
raise  the  hands  until  the  forearms  are  horizontal,  fingers 
closed,  nails  toward  the  body,  elbows  to  the  rear. 

At  the  command  march,  carry  forward  the  left  foot, 
leg  slightly  bent,  knee  somewhat  raised,  and  plant  the 
foot  thirty-six  inches  from  the  right ;  then  execute  the 
same  motion  with  the  right  foot ;  continue  this  alternate 
movement  of  the  feet,  throwing  the  weight  of  the  body 
forward  and  allowing  a  natural  swinging  motion  to  the 
arms.  The  pupils  should  also  be  exercised  in  running, 
the  principles  being  the  same  as  for  double  time. 

When  marching  in  double  time  and  running,  the 
pupils  breathe  as  much  as  possible  through  the  nose, 
keeping  the  mouth  closed.  (New  tactics.) 

Boys  run  better  than  girls.  Women,  as  a  rule,  are  not 
good  runners.  They  keep  the  arms  too  still.  The  arms 
must  swing  to  balance  the  body,  and  it  is  essential  that 
the  movements  be  free  and  elastic.  Teach  pupils  to  run 
lightly,  quietly,  and  on  tiptoes.  One  hundred  and  fifty, 
even  two  hundred  steps,  can  be  taken  a  minute.  Drill 
the  class  frequently  in  running  in  place,  the  command 
being,  "  Company,  in  place,  run!'1'1  at  which  time  they 


MILITARY   GYMNASTICS.  201 

will  go  through  the  running  movement  but  do  not  gain 
ground.  From  this  they  can  be  given  either  the  com- 
mand, "  Forward,  run  !  "  or,  "  Company,  halt /  "  From 
running  in  place  the  halt  is  made  in  two  counts.  We  do 
not  often  give  the  command  halt  from  double  time  when 
the  class  is  gaining  ground,  on  account  of  the  impetus 
given  the  body.  It  is  preferable  first  to  come  to  slow 
time.  Do  not  touch  the  heels  to  the  floor  when  running. 

Alignments.  The  instructor  first  teaches  the  pupils  to 
align  themselves  scholar  by  scholar,  the  better  to  com- 
prehend the  principles  of  alignments ;  to  this  end  she 
advances  the  two  scholars  on  the  right  three  or  more 
yards,  and  having  aligned  them,  commands,  "  By  file, 
right  (or  left),  dress,  front  /" 

At  the  command  dress,  the  pupils  move  up  succes- 
sively in  quick  time,  shortening  the  last  step  so  as  to  find 
themselves  about  six  inches  behind  the  alignment. 
Each  pupil  then  moves  on  the  line,  which  must  never 
be  passed,  taking  steps  of  two  or  three  inches,  casting 
his  eyes  to  the  right  so  as  to  see  the  buttons  on  the  coat 
of  the  pupil  second  from  him,  keeping  his  shoulders 
square  to  the  front,  and  touching  with  his  elbow  that  of 
the  one  next  to  him  without  opening  his  arms. 

At  the  command  front,  given  when  the  rank  is  well 
aligned,  the  pupils  cast  their  eyes  to  the  front  and  remain 
firm. 

According  to  the  old  tactics,  the  scholars  fall  in  at  a 
right  face,  or  one  standing  directly  back  of  the  other. 
This  is  done  in  order  that  new  pupils  may  be  easily 
placed  in  line,  or,  if  changes  are  made,  the  file  is  not  so 
apt  to  be  disturbed  as  it  would  be  if  the  pupils  were 


202  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

standing  side  by  side.  While  the  pupils  are  standing  at 
facing  distance  in  single  files,  instruct  them  in  dressing 
to  the  front.  Facing  distance,  when  in  single  file,  is 
the  length  of  the  forearm  from  the  one  next  in  front, 
and  is  tested  by  flexing  the  forearm.  (See  Fig.  17.)  It  is 
well  to  associate  the  word  dress  with  the  "dressing 
down,"  or  the  planing  of  a  board.  Scholars  are  to  be 
taught  that,  when  the  line  is  perfectly  dressed,  it  is  trim, 
neat,  and  straight.  Give  the  command  "  Left,  face,"  and 
teach  right  and  left  dressing. 

The  matter  of  aligning  a  class  and  dressing  does  not 
require  a  great  deal  of  practice.  The  movements  are 
easily  taught  and  learned.  There  is  one  point,  how- 
ever, that  will  be  of  service  to  the  teacher,  i.  e.,  a  rapid 
method  of  arranging  scholars  according  to  their  height. 
It  is  possible  to  form  a  file  in  a  short  time  if  the  in- 
structor knows  how.  We  generally  ask  our  pupils  to 
fall  in  in  a  file  on  one  side  of  the  room,  according  to 
their  height,  the  shortest  standing  in  front  and  the 
tallest  at  the  rear.  Pupils  above  a  certain  age  are  able  to 
align  themselves  in  a  creditable  manner.  After  "falling 
in,"  if  the  instructor  stands  at  some  little  distance  from 
the  file,  she  will  be  able  to  tell  at  a  glance  whether  this 
one  or  that  one  is  too  short,  aligning  by  the  heads,  and 
not  by  the  height  of  the  shoulders.  If  a  second  align- 
ment is  to  be  made,  have  the  shortest  one  take  three 
steps  to  the  left  or  right.  The  teacher  can  then  indicate 
who  should  come  next. 

To  march  in  a  line.  Being  in  line  at  a  halt,  command, 
"Forward,  guide  right  (or  left),  march!11  The  pupils 
step  off,  the  guide  marching  straight  to  the  front.  The 


MILITARY   GYMNASTICS.  203 

instructor  sees  that  the  pupils  preserve  the  interval 
toward  the  side  of  the  guide ;  that  they  yield  to  pres- 
sure from  that  side  and  resist  pressure  from  the  opposite 
direction ;  that  by  slightly  shortening  or  lengthening 
the  step,  they  gradually  recover  the  alignment,  and  by 
slightly  opening  out  or  closing  in,  they  gradually  re- 
cover the  interval,  if  lost;  that  while  habitually  keep- 
ing the  head  to  the  front,  they  may  occasionally  glance 
toward  the  side  of  the  guide  to  assure  themselves  of  the 
alignment  and  interval,  but  that  the  head  is  turned  as 
little  as  possible  for  this  purpose.  To  change  the  guide, 
command,  "Guide  right  (or  left)."  (New  tactics.) 

It  is  taken  for  granted  that  the  teacher  understands 
the  difference  between  a  file  and  a  line.  (See  Terms.) 
Attention  is  called  to  the  placing  of  guides  when  march- 
ing in  a  line.  If  the  class  is  a  small  one,  the  guide  can 
be  placed  upon  the  right  or  the  left.  If  it  is  a  large  one, 
I  prefer  to  place  the  guide  in  the  center,  in  which  case 
the  command  is,  "  Company,  forward  (or  backward), 
guide  center,  march!11 

To  march  by  the  flank.  Being  at  a  halt  the  instructor 
commands,  "Right  (or  left),  face!  Forward,  march!" 
If  in  march  the  instructor  commands,  "  By  the  right  (or 
left)  flank,  march  !  "  At  the  command  march,  given  as 
the  right  foot  strikes  the  ground,  advance  and  plant  the 
left  foot,  then  turn  to  the  right  and  step  off  in  the  new 
direction  with  the  right  foot.  In  the  march  by  the 
flank  the  scholars  cover  each  other  and  keep  closed  to 
facing  distance,  that  is,  to  such  distance  that  in  forming 
line  the  elbows  will  touch. 

One  who  understands  how  to  teach  right  and  left  face 


204  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

will  find  no  difficulty  in  having  the  class  execute  this 
movement  when  they  are  at  a  halt.  But  it  requires 
some  thought  on  the  part  of  the  instructor  to  give  the 
command  march  when  the  class  is  in  motion.  The  in- 
structor should  try  this  movement  a  number  of  times 
before  taking  the  class,  and  should  drill  small  rather 
than  large  squads. 

The  flank  movement  is  used  a  great  deal  in  our  march- 
ing. The  spectator  is  not  aware  that  a  mistake  has  been 
made  in  the  facing  if  all  the  scholars  turn  about  the 
same  time,  nor  does  it  annoy  the  scholars,  but  it  is  well 
for  them  to  be  drilled  in  these  movements,  if  time  will 
allow  and  the  discipline  of  the  school  will  permit. 
It  must  be  understood,  however,  that  military  work 
amounts  to  little  if  the  teacher  does  not  have  military 
discipline.  It  seems  almost  impossible  to  secure  this 
order  in  a  number  of  our  schools.  When  this  is  the 
case,  reduce  the  military  work  to  a  minimum. 

To  change  direction  in  column  of  files.  The  members 
of  the  class  have  been  previously  well  drilled  in  right 
and  left  oblique  facing,  or  half  facing  to  the  right  and 
the  left.  An  important  point  to  remember  is  that  the 
scholars  must  learn  to  march  in  a  direct  line  to  the 
front.  In  other  words,  they  must  "cover  points,"  or 
aim  the  body  at  a  certain  point  and  walk  toward  that, 
regardless  of  where  the  one  next  in  front  goes.  In 
"Column  half  right  (or  half  left)/'  every  member  of 
the  class  must  march  to  the  given  point  and  turn  forty- 
five  degrees,  then  march  in  the  new  direction.  One 
reason  why  these  simple  movements  are  so  poorly  done 
is  because  the  teacher  passes  rapidly  over  them,  anxious 


MILITARY  GYMNASTICS.  205 

to  drill  the  class  upon  the  more  elaborate  and  showy 
exercises.  No  instructor  can  secure  the  best  results  who 
does  not  pay  attention  'to  detail  training. 

To  oblique.  Being  in  line  at  a  halt,  or  marching,  com- 
mand, "Right  (or  left)  oblique,  march!"  Each  man 
half  faces  to  the  right,  at  the  same  time  stepping  off  in 
the  new  direction.  He  preserves  his  relative  position, 
keeping  his  shoulders  parallel  with  those  of  the  one 
next  on  his  right,  and  so  regulates  his  step  as  to  make 
the  head  of  this  pupil  conceal  the  heads  of  the  others 
in  the  rank.  At  the  command  halt,  the  men  halt,  faced 
to  the  front.  (New  tactics.) 

This  maneuver  will  not  be  well  done  until  the  pupils 
have  been  thoroughly  drilled  in  right  and  left  oblique 
facing  and  marching  in  a  direct  line.  To  march  in  the 
oblique  direction  when  in  file  is  not  so  hard  as  to  execute 
a  similar  movement  when  four  or  eight  are  abreast. 

Wheelings.  Wheeling  on  a  fixed  pivot.  Being  at  a 
halt  the  instructor  commands,  uln  circle  right  (or  left) 
wheel,  march  !  " 

At  the  command  march  the  pupils,  except  the  pivot 
man,  step  off  with  the  left  foot,  turning  at  the  same 
time  the  head  a  little  to  the  left,  the  eyes  fixed  on  the 
line  of  the  eyes  of  the  men  to  their  left ;  the  pivot  man 
marks  time  strictly  in  his  place,  gradually  turning  his 
body,  to  conform  to  the  movement  of  the  marching 
flank;  the  one  who  conducts  this  flank  takes  steps  of 
twenty-eight  inches,  and,  from  the  first  step,  advances 
the  left  shoulder  a  little,  casts  his  eyes  along  the  rank, 
and  feels  lightly  the  elbow  of  the  next  pupil  toward  the 
pivot,  but  never  pushes  him. 


206  METHODS   OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

The  others  touch  with  the  elbow  toward  the  pivot, 
resist  pressure  from  the  opposite  side,  conform  to  the 
movement  of  the  marching  flank,  and  shorten  their 
steps  according  to  their  distance  from  it.  After  wheeling 
around  the  circle  several  times  the  i  nstructor  commands, 
"  Trait  f" 

Wheeling  on  a  movable  pivot.  Being  in  march,  to 
change  direction  the  instructor  commands,  "  Right  (or 
left)  wheel,  march,  forward,  march  !  " 

The  first  command  is  given  when  the  squad  is  three 
yards  from  the  wheeling  point. 

At  the  command  march,  the  wheel  is  executed  as  on  a 
fixed  pivot,  except  that  the  pivot  man,  instead  of  turn- 
ing in  his  place,  takes  steps  of  nine  inches,  and  thus  gains 
ground  forward  in  describing  a  small  curve  so  as  to  clear 
the  wheeling-point. 

The  radius  of  the  circle  described  by  the  pivot  man 
increases  with  the  size  of  the  squad,  and  is  equal  to 
nearly  one  half  of  the  front  of  the  squad  or  subdivision. 

Wheelings  on  fixed  or  movable  pivot  being  important 
movements,  the  instructor  requires  the  pupils  succes- 
sively to  act  as  pivots  and  to  conduct  the  marching 
flank. 

The  following  simple  rule  for  wheeling  with  three, 
four,  five,  or  more  abreast,  will  assist  the  instructor.  If 
there  are  four  abreast  the  pupils  take  only  four  steps  to 
wheel  ninety  degrees,  eight  steps  to  wheel  one  hundred 
and  eighty  degrees,  sixteen  steps  to  wheel  in  a  complete 
circle. 

If  there  are  five  wheeling  they  take  five  steps  to  wheel 
ninety  degrees.  Six  persons  take  six  steps,  and  so  on. 


MILITARY   GYMNASTICS.  207 

There  is  always  one  more  count  than  the  number  of  steps 
taken. 

Illustration  :  In  "  Fours,  right,  march,"  the  pupils  will 
take  only  four  steps,  but  will  count  five. 

Wheelings.  The  first  wheel  is  generally  made  when 
the  scholars  are  marching  around  the  room  four  abreast. 
The  points  to  dwell  upon  are  these  :  Every  scholar  in  the 
four,  with  the  exception  of  the  marching  flank,  or  the 
outside  pupil,  turns  the  face  toward  the  marching  flank, 
and  dresses  to  the  pivot,  which,  by  the  way,  is  not 
a  fixed  one.  One  reason  why  a  company  has  trouble  in 
rounding  corners  is  that  the  pivots  either  fix  themselves 
or  take  steps  that  are  much  too  short,  and  the  radius  of 
the  circle  is  not  equal  to  half  of  the  company  front. 
This  is  an  important  rule,  and  should  be  strictly  en- 
forced. The  wheeling  on  a  fixed  pivot  with  a  small  com- 
pany front  is  not  difficult,  hence  let  all  wheeling  be  be- 
gun with  squads.  Increase  the  size  of  these  until  the 
entire  class  can  wheel  to  the  right  or  the  left.  But  the 
rule  must  be  observed  that  the  eyes  are  upon  the  march- 
ing flank  and  the  elbows  touch  to  the  pivots.  The 
marching  flank  pupil  takes  the  regulation  step,  and  from 
this  point  down  to  the  pivot  the  step  is  gradually 
shortened.  Another  important  bit  of  advice  to  be  re- 
membered is  :  In  case  those  in  the  center  do  not  shorten 
the  step,  the  line  will  bulge  to  the  front.  Wheeling  re- 
quires practice  and  patience  on  the  part  of  both  instruc- 
tor and  pupils.  Wheeling  on  a  movable  pivot  is  much 
harder  than  when  the  stationary  form  is  used.  By  fol- 
lowing the  directions  given  in  the  text,  this  work  can 
be  well  done. 


208 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 


aaaa 


aaan 


aczracn 


a  a  a  CD 


To  form  a  column  of  fours  from  a 
column  of  twos  or  files.  (Fig.  18.) 
Marching  in  column  of  twos  the 
teacher  commands,  "Form  fours,  left 
(or  right)  oblique,  march!11  At  the 
command  march,  the  leading  two  of 
each  four  take  the  short  step  ;  the  rear 
two  oblique  to  the  left  until  they  un- 
cover the  leading  two,  when  they  re- 
sume the  forward  march.  Having 
formed  column  of  files  from  column 
of  twos  or  fours,  to  form  column  of 
fours  the  teacher  commands,  "  Form 
fours,  left  (or  right)  oblique,  march!11 
At  the  command  march,  number  one 
of  the  first  four  moves  forward  three 
yards  and  halts  ;  the  other  files  of  the 
first  four  oblique  to  the  left  and  place 
themselves  successively  on  the  left  of 
the  leading  file ;  the  other  fours  suc- 
cessively form  as  explained  for  the 
first. 

Column  of  twos  is  formed  from  col- 
umn of  files  on  the  same  principles. 
(Fig.  19.) 

In  forming  column  of  fours,  or  twos, 
the  teacher  commands,  "Left  (or  right) 
oblique,"  according  as  the  right  or 
left  is  in  front. 

It  is  understood  that  the  scholars 
have  counted  fours.  It  may  seem 


209 

strange  to  some  that  attention  is  drawn  to  this  seem- 
ingly plain  point,  but  more  than  one  teacher  has  started 
a  class  around  the  room  and  given  the  command  to 
form  twos  and  fours,  when  the  pupils  had  not  been 
numbered. 

To  form  twos  from  a  column  of  files  is  different  from 
forming  twos  from  a  line.    These  terms  are 
confusing,  and  the  new  teacher  is  frequently     V.X 
bothered  by  the  similarity  between  them. 


It  is  enough  for  one  lesson  to  teach  forming 

twos  and  fours  from    a  file;  but  our  am-  ' 


bitious  teacher  attempts  to  teacli  at  one  les- 
son  much  of  what  is  found  in  the  chapter 
on  military  training. 

Children  are  taught  by  the  picture  method.          tIJ    | 
It  is  one  of  the  easiest  ways  to  educate  a    (ZUCE1]    ' 
person.    So  in  teaching  the  members  of  a       """EZJ    o 
class  to  form  twos  from  a  line  of  files,  it  is    r^H^     I. 
well  to  take  the  two  leading  files  off  to  one         ->-^.    ; 
side,  where  they  can  be  seen  by  the  entire    ,  —  ._    £ 
class,  and  illustrate  the  method  with  them.      '•  .'j^ 

The  salient  features  are  these:  The  pupils 
must   understand  in  which   direction  they      *..."•• 
are  to  go  when  they  form  twos  on  the  right. 
Have  the  class  count  twos  and  then  face  to  the  right,  so 
that  they  are  in  single  file,  then  asking  number  one  to 
stand  perfectly  still,  request  number  two  to  step  out  to 
his  right  when  the  command  is  given.    Then  when  the 
next  order  is  given,  viz.  :  "  Left  by  file,  march!"  have 
number  two  step  back  to  the  file.     Try  the  same  plan 
when  the  class  is  in  motion,  but  insist  upon  number  one 


210  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 


shortening    the     step,     number     two 


obliquing  to  the  right  and  lengthening 
the  step,  and  explain  to  the  class  that 
this  is  necessary  to  keep  the  distance. 
I  should  illustrate  forming  fours  from 
twos  or  from  a  file  by  the  same  picture 
method.  In  forming  a  column  of  fours 
tmaimQ  from  a  file,  it  is  just  as  well  to  have 
number  one  mark  time  as  soon  as  the 
command  march  is  given,  rather  than 
to  take  three  steps  forward,  as  given 

fi     in  the  old  tactics.    To  form  twos  from 

ri 

£  a  column  of  fours,  command,  "  Right 
S  (or  left)  by  twos,  march!11  (See  Fig. 

8    a>0 

£        To  form  column  of  twos  from  line, 

g  the  teacher  commands,  "Twos,  right 
£  (or  left),  march  !  "  The  twos  wheel  to 
Jj  the  right  on  numbers  one  and  three  of 

C^ 

a  each  four  as  pivots,  and  to  the  left  on 
fc  numbers  two  and  four.  The  column 
of  twos  is  formed  in  line  by  the  com- 
mands, "  Twos,  left  (or  right),  march  ! 
Guide  right  (or  left)  "  ;  "  Company, 
halt!  Right  (or  left)  dress,  front  /» 
The  line  is  formed  to  the  left  or  right, 
according  as  the  right  or  left  is  in  front. 
To  form  twos  from  a  line  is  different 
from  forming  twos  from  a  file.  The 
commands  are  not  the  same.  I  would 
impress  it  upon  the  mind  of  the  young 


MILITARY   GYMNASTICS.  211 

teacher  that  the  first  word  in  the  command  when  forming 
twos  from  files  must  be  remembered,  viz. :  the  word/orm. 
To  form  twos  from  a  line,  the  command  is,  "  Twos,  right 
(or  left),  march  !  "  The  movement  is  easily  learned,  and 
not  a  difficult  one  to  teach.  Remember  this  :  that  as  soon 
as  the  twos  are  formed  from  the  line  they  march  ahead, 
and  do  not  stop  unless  they  have  the  command  to  do  so. 
If  we  wish  to  form  a  line  from  a  column  of  twos,  the 
command  will  be  given,  "Twos,  right  (or  left),marc/&/" 
in  which  case  the  pivot  is  on  the  left  or  the  right, 
according  to  the  command.  It  is  not  necessary  to  take 
time  to  explain  these,  only  the  scholars  must  remember 
that  after  the  movement  has  been  executed  they  march 
directly  ahead,  if  no  other  command  is  given,  and  dress, 
according  to  the  rules  for  inarching  in  a  line.  If  the 
teacher  wishes  to  form  fours  from  a  line,  the  command 
will  be,  "Fours,  right  (or  left),  march!11  after  which  num- 
ber one  (or  four)  is  to  act  as  a  fixed  pivot,  and  four  (or 
one)  the  marching  flank.  The  rules  for  wheeling  must  be 
observed,  even  when  applied  to  a  three  or  a  four.  While 
speaking  of  a  four,  let  me  call  attention  to  the  com- 
mands, "  Fours,  right  about  (or  left  about),  march! "'in. 
which  case  the  marching  flank  goes  over  180  degrees. 
The  pivot  is  fixed ;  the  rules  for  wheeling  are  to  be 
observed.  If  the  instructor  wishes  the  four  to  march 
completely  around  in  a  circle,  the  command  is,  "Fours  in 
circle,  right  (or  left)  wheel,  march!"  in  which  case  the 
pivot  is  a  fixed  one,  and  the  rules  for  wheeling  are 
observed.  The  four  continues  to  march  around  in  a  circle 
until  the  command  haltj  or  "Forward,  march!11  or 
"  Mark  time,  mark  !  "  is  given. 


212  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

To  march  in  column  of  fours  to  the  front.  Being  in 
line  the  teacher  commands,  "Bight  (or  left),  forward, 
fours  right  (or  left),  march.11  (Fig.  21.)  At  the  com- 
mand march,  the  right  four  moves  straight  to  the  front, 
shortening  the  first  three  or  four  steps  ;  the  other  fours 
wheel  to  the  right  on  a  fixed  pivot ;  the  second  four, 
when  its  wheel  is  two  thirds  completed,  wheels  to  the 


* 

t       / 


FIG.  21.— Right,  Forward,  Fours  Right. 

left  on  a  movable  pivot,  and  follows  the  first  four ;  the 
other  fours,  having  wheeled  to  the  right,  move  forward 
and  wheel  to  the  left  on  a  movable  pivot  on  the  same 
ground  as  the  second. 

To  march  in  a  column  of  fours  to  the  front,  the 
scholars  are  in  a  line;  the  command  is  found  in  the 
description.  At  the  command  march,  the  first  four 
must  shorten  the  first  few  steps.  Teachers  do  not  em- 


MILITARY   GYMNASTICS.  213 

phasize  this,  consequently  there  is  an  irregular  space 
between  the  first  and  the  second  four.  The  second  four 
in  the  line  has  the  hardest  work  to  do,  because  part  of 
its  work  is  on  a  fixed  and  part  on  a  movable  pivot. 
It  is  well,  therefore,  for  the  teacher  to  explain  carefully 
to  the  second  four  just  what  they  are  to  do.  The  result 
will  be  that,  when  the  column  of  fours  is  formed  and 
marched  to  the  front,  the  lines  are  regular  and  the  spaces 
even.  The  rules  for  turning  a  corner  in  a  column  of 
fours  have  been  given.  Dwell  upon  the  fact  that  the 
pivots  are  movable,  that  the  elbows  touch  the  pivot,  and 
the  eyes  are  turned  toward  the  marching  flank  until  the 
wheel  is  made,  when  the  eyes  are  again  turned  to  the 
front. 

There  is  one  command  that  is  somewhat  irregular,  but 
nevertheless  the  movement  is  of  so  much  value  that  I 
use  it  frequently.  It  is  to  form  fours  or  threes  or  sixes 
by  a  flank  movement.  The  command  is,  "  First  four  by 
the  right  flank,  march  !  "  At  the  command  march,  the 
first  four  face  to  the  right  and  march  in  the  new  direc- 
tion, shortening  the  steps.  The  rest  of  the  file  will  march 
to  the  same  point,  and  each  four  will,  in  turn,  execute 
the  right  flank  movement  and  march  in  the  new  direc- 
tion. By  this  plan  the  scholars  can  take  their  numbers 
and  form  their  fours  in  one  movement.  The  teacher 
must  emphasize  the  fact  that  each  number  one  must 
wait  for  two,  three,  and  four  before  marching  in  the  new 
direction,  as  otherwise  the  four  form  an  irregular  line. 

In  closing  the  chapter  upon  military  drill,  I  wish  to 
state  that  too  much  importance  cannot  be  attached  to 
this  part  of  our  physical  training.  The  scholar  who  has 


214  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

been  well  drilled  in  this  respect  acquires  control  over  the 
body.  It  is  said  that  we  can  pick  out  a  West  Pointer  at 
a  glance.  It  is  true  that  we  associate  with  the  officer  in 
the  army  the  erect  carriage,  the  firm  step,  and  the  proud 
bearing,  which  military  drill  will  give.  The  men  who 
compose  the  army  are,  to  a  certain  extent,  machines. 
Their  work  becomes  automatic,  and  they  obey  com- 
mands without  thinking.  They  are  to  use  their  best 
energies  in  fighting.  While  this,  of  course,  does  not 
apply  to  the  scholars  in  our  schools,  nevertheless  that 
boy  or  girl  who  has  received  some  military  training 
will  exhibit  its  good  effects  in  other  ways.  It  is  true 
that  the  head  is  erect,  the  chest  in  a  better  position,  the 
movements  of  the  body  are  decided  and  regular,  and  the 
child  is  more  apt  to  show  the  results  of  the  discipline  in 
better  mental  work  than  one  who  has  not  been  so 
trained. 

I  am  aware  that  in  many  of  our  schools  the  military 
training  is  a  farce.  The  fault  is  not  entirely  that  of  the 
teacher,  but  of  the  principal  of  the  school,  who  does  not 
wish,  or  who  is  not  in  a  position  to  enforce,  strict 
obedience.  In  this  part  of  our  training  the  body  is 
always  ready  for  immediate  action.  No  time  is  lost. 
The  pupil  does  not  stand  with  the  weight  back  upon  the 
heels,  but  is  well  poised,  and  starts  forward  upon  the 
command,  or  steps  in  any  one  of  the  given  directions. 

I  have  taken  some  time  to  speak  of  what  may  seem  to 
be  too  simple  details,  but  my  experience  with  a  large 
number  of  teachers  has  shown  me  that  they  do  not 
understand  the  rudiments  of  this  work,  and  I  would 
strongly  urge  that  the  man  or  woman  who  teaches 


MILITARY  GYMNASTICS.  215 

military  drill  try  the  movements  and  practice  them 
before  attempting  to  teach  them  to  a  class  of  boys  or 
girls. 

At  what  age  should   we  teach  military  drill  in  our 
schools?    As  soon  as  we  begin  to  teach  gymnastics. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

USE  OF  LIGHT  APPARATUS. 
DUMB  BELLS. 

IT  is  perhaps  not  necessary  to  dwell  at  length  upon 
the  comparative  value  of  the  dumb  bells,  Indian  clubs, 
and  wands.  The  three  pieces  of  apparatus  should  be 
used.  There  is,  perhaps,  a  greater  variety  of  movement 
to  be  found  with  the  wands  and  the  bells  than  with  the 
clubs,  when  we  take  into  consideration  the  movements 
of  the  body  combined  with  those  of  the  arms.  The 
wands  and  Indian  clubs  will  be  discussed  under  special 
headings. 

Regarding  the  bells,  experience  teaches  us  that  two 
weights  are  sufficient,  viz.:  the  one-pound  wooden  dumb 
bell,  for  pupils  over  ten  years  of  age — this  to  include  the 
young  men  in  the  gymnasium  ;  for  pupils  under  ten  the 
half-pound  bell  will  answer.  The  best  bell  to  use  is  one 
with  a  large  handle.  The  old  style  fancy  dumb  bell, 
with  slender,  curved  handles,  is  not  strong  enough  for 
gymnasium  use.  Bells  should  be  made  of  hard  wood, 
with  an  oil  finish.  The  teacher  should  insist  upon 
securing  those  which  are  not  shellaced.  With  proper 
use,  they  ought  to  last  a  number  of  years. 

The  various  manufacturers  have  placed  on  the  market 
racks  of  different  kinds  for  holding  the  bells.  These 

216 


USE  OF  LIGHT  APPARATUS.  217 

racks  should  be  placed  in  different  parts  of  the  room. 
Do  not  have  the  bells  placed  together  in  a  certain  portion 
of  the  gymnasium,  because,  if  the  scholars  are  allowed 
to  break  ranks  to  secure  them,  there  will  be  rushing  and 
crowding.  It  is  better  to  scatter  them  on  three  or  four 
sides  of  the  room,  and  to  place  between  the  pairs  of  bells 
a  pair  of  Indian  clubs. 

The  question  has  been  asked,  How  soon  can  we  begin 
to  use  the  dumb  bells  in  the  gymnasium?  They  can  be 
given  to  the  members  of  the  smaller  class,  although  it  is 
better  to  give  the  children  and  pupils  in  the  kinder- 
garten department  exercises  included  under  the  term 
free  gymnastics.  Certainly  it  is  not  advisable  to  give 
them  the  bells  until  after  Christmas,  if  the  school  opens 
in  September.  This  is  also  true  of  the  wands.  We  do 
not  give  the  Indian  clubs  to  the  children  until  they 
have  been  in  the  gymnasium  for  one,  two,  or  more  years. 

The  bells  may  be  taken  from  the  racks  in  several  ways. 
The  plan  adopted  by  some  teachers  is  to  have  the  class 
march  around  the  room,  each  pupil  taking  from  the 
racks  a  pair  of  bells  as  he  marches  by.  This  is  a  good 
way  if  the  class  has  been  drilled  in  military  work. 

A  short  lesson  upon  this  subject  may  assist  the  teacher. 
Let  us  imagine  that  the  class  is  to  take  the  bells  for  the 
first  time.  The  teacher  will  call  attention  to  this  piece 
of  apparatus ;  will  perhaps  take  her  own  bells  from  the 
rack  connected  with  the  platform  and  show  them  to 
the  children.  She  should  then  make  the  statements, 
which  form  part  of  the  discipline  of  the  class,  i.  e.,  that 
the  pupils  will  be  allowed  to  take  the  apparatus  if  they 
show  by  their  actions  that  they  are  old  enough.  They 


218  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

must  under  no  conditions  strike  the  bells  together  until 
they  have  permission  to  do  so,  while  the  scholar  who 
drops  his  bell  on  the  floor  shows  that  he  is  not  strong 
enough  or  is  not  well  enough  drilled  to  hold  it  in  his 
hands. 

The  great  difficulty  will  be  the  "  clicking  »  of  the  bells, 
which  almost  immediately  follows  the  first  trial.  .  It  is 
the  fault  of  the  teacher  if  it  happens.  The  instructor 
should  anticipate  these  difficulties,  warn  the  class,  and 
enforce  her  orders. 

It  now  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  teacher  has 
the  courage  of  her  convictions,  and  will  keep  her  word 
with  the  class.  She  will  give  the  pupils  in  the  first  row 
permission  to  step  across  to  the  racks,  take  their  bells, 
and  return  to  places.  When  they  have  come  back  to 
position  the  bells  should  be  placed  on  the  hips.  The 
scholars  will  then  be  compelled  to  remain  standing  still 
for  a  very  short  time,  while  the  pupils  in  the  other  rows 
get  their  supply  and  come  back  to  position.  Very  likely 
it  will  happen  that,  while  the  scholars  in  the  third  or 
fourth  row  are  getting  their  bells,  some  one  in  the  first 
row  will  disobey  the  order  and  strike  the  bells  together, 
either  in  front  or  back  of  the  body.  The  teacher  must 
at  once  ascertain  the  offender,  and  request  him  to 
replace  immediately  his  bells  in  the  rack.  The  effect 
upon  the  rest  of  the  class  will  be  a  good  one.  They  know 
then  that  the  teacher  means  what  she  says.  It  is  doubt- 
ful if  there  need  be  a  repetition  of  this  punishment  in 
the  class,  if  the  teacher  acts  without  delay  in  the  case  of 
the  first  offense. 

After  all  members  of  the  class  have  supplied  them- 


USE  OF  LIGHT   APPARATUS.  219 

selves  with  bells,  it  may  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  allow 
the  scholars  to  examine  them,  and  to  strike  them  to- 
gether if  necessary.  It  is  true  that  this  clicking  will 
make  a  loud  noise,  but  no  harm  will  result.  The  curi- 
osity of  the  child  will  have  been  satisfied,  and  he  is  less 
likely  to  violate  rules  in  the  future.  I  have  very  often 
tried  this  plan,  and  found  that  it  works  well. 

If  the  first  wish  of  the  children  is  to  make  a  noise 
with  the  bells,  give  them  a  lesson  in  which  they  can 
make  all  the  noise  they  wish,  such  as  striking  the  bells 
in  front  of  the  body  or  above  the  head,  in  unison.  At 
the  close  of  the  lesson  the  teacher  should  see  that  the 
bells  are  put  back  in  the  same  places  from  which  they 
were  taken.  If  there  are  two  sizes  used  in  the  class, 
the  necessity  for  this  will  be  evident.  Otherwise  the 
large  bells  will  be  mixed  up  with  the  smaller  ones,  and 
vice  versd.  As  soon  as  the  teacher  has  impressed  it 
thoroughly  upon  the  class  that  they  are  not  to  rap  their 
dumb  bells,  and  that  dropping  them  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion, she  can  proceed  to  the  next  step,  which  is  to  drill 
the  class  in  taking  the  bells,  coming  back  to  position, 
letting  the  arms  hang  at  the  side  and  not  twisting  the 
arms.  I  should  strongly  urge  a  teacher  to  be  careful 
about  making  rules  that  she  is  not  in  a  position  to 
enforce.  It  is  not  wrong  for  a  child  to  twist  the  arm 
when  the  bell  is  held  in  the  hand,  nevertheless,  as  a  part 
of  its  training,  he  should  be  taught  to  hold  the  arms  at 
the  side.  It  would  be  poor  teaching  to  request  a  class  of 
children  to  hold  the  bells  for  a  long  time  without  taking 
some  exercise.  In  such  a  case  the  scholars  may  be  ex- 
cused if  they  violate  rules.  It  is  the  idle  class  that  gets 


220  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

into  trouble.  Keep  the  class  busy  during  the  entire 
period  allotted  for  the  lesson  in  gymnastics. 

Another  difficulty  that  the  teacher  will  have  to  meet 
is  the  changing  of  the  bells.  A  scholar  secures  one  pair 
and  goes  to  his  place  ;  they  do  not  suit  him  and  he  starts 
back  to  make  a  change.  Do  not  allow  this.  Then  there 
is,  in  the  class,  a  very  particular  scholar,  who  will  try  to 
find  two  bells  of  exactly  the  same  color  and  shape.  He 
will  pick  out  one  bell,  and  start  to  run  up  and  down  the 
room  to  find  another  that  is  exactly  like  it.  This,  of 
course,  must  not  be  tolerated. 

What  shall  we  give  at  the  first  lesson?  If  the  children 
have  been  well  drilled  in  taking,  holding,  and  replacing 
the  bells,  much  has  been  accomplished,  and  this  is 
enough  for  the  first  lesson.  For  the  interesting  part  of 
the  drill  the  scholars  may  be  permitted  to  go  through 
some  of  the  striking  motions  mentioned  above.  The 
running  in  place  can  be  given  at  the  same  time,  allowing 
them  to  strike  the  bells,  first  the  thumb  ends  and  then 
the  little  finger  ends,  the  bells  being  held  chest  high  to 
the  front,  the  arms  bent.  The  simplest  motions  must  be 
given  at  the  beginning.  As  we  teach  the  alphabet,  or 
the  sounds  of  the  letters,  to  the  child  beginning  to  read, 
so  we  should  give  the  simple  attitudes,  positions,  or  ex- 
ercises with  the  dumb  bells. 

The  movements  should  be  given  in  the  simplest  time. 
To  illustrate  :  One  teacher,  in  giving  a  class  of  children 
a  drill  with  the  dumb  bells,  requested  them  to  take  the 
alternate  movements.  As  the  children  had  never  heard 
the  word  "alternate"  before,  they  did  not  know  what 
she  meant,  and  although  she  showed  the  exercise, 


USE  OF  LIGHT  APPARATUS.  221 

they  did  not  do  the  movements  at  all  well.  It  is  better 
to  give  movements  with  one  arm,  or  possibly  with  two  ; 
but  do  not  make  the  exercise  complex  or  compound  at 
the  start.  The  thrusting  and  swinging  movements  with 
the  arms  are  easily  taught  and  learned.  The  circling 
motion  with  the  arm  is  harder.  (The  reader  is  referred 
to  "Light  Gymnastics"  for  the  alphabet  with  the  dumb 
bells.) 

Imitation  work  is  always  good  for  children  and  adults. 
By  this  it  is  meant  that  the  teacher  is  to  take  an  exer- 
cise without  describing  it,  slowly  at  first,  but  afterwards 
the  movements  can  be  given  rapidly.  This  always 
arouses  a  great  deal  of  interest  and  merriment  on  the 
part  of  the  children.  The  child  sees  the  picture,  and  is 
compelled  to  imitate  it  as  quickly  as  possible.  This,  of 
course,  will  require  attention,  observation,  and  muscular 
or  nerve  control  on  the  part  of  the  little  ones. 

Professor  Morrill,  of  the  State  Normal  School  at  New 
Haven,  says  that  he  believes  the  muscle  sense  in  a  child 
can  be  developed,  and  that  it  is  educated  quicker  if  the 
child  is  allowed  to  take  the  movement  in  order  that  he 
may  feel  the  exercise.  The  person  who  draws  himself 
up  and  turns  over  on  the  horizontal  bar  experiences  a 
certain  feeling  that  he  will  always  associate  with  that 
particular  exercise.  On  the  other  hand,  the  one  who 
cannot  do  this  will  never  have  experienced  that  peculiar 
sensation  which  Professor  Morrill  calls  the  "muscle 
sense."  So  with  a  child  :  the  one  who  has  taken  a  cer- 
tain exercise  accurately  will  experience  the  sensation 
which  follows  a  movement  well  executed,  and  this  will 
assist  him  in  the  future  in  doing  accurate  work. 


222  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

The  picture  method  of  teaching  an  exercise  has  been 
mentioned  elsewhere  in  this  book.  It  is  valuable,  but 
should  not  be  overdone.  The  teacher  should  explain  an 
exercise  without  showing  it,  and  request  the  scholars  to 
take  it.  This  will  require  thought  and  will  power  on  the 
part  of  the  child.  It  would  not  be  wise  to  give  work  of 
this  character  to  a  class  of  children  who  had  been  taking 
an  examination  or  were  wearied  with  mental  effort. 

When  pupils  have  been  drilled  in  marching  and  can 
keep  step,  and  the  work  is  to  a  certain  extent  automatic, 
the  teacher  might  frequently  allow  them  to  march  for 
the  dumb  bells  and  come  back  to  places.  It  will  require, 
however,  an  alert  disciplinarian  to  keep  order  if  this  is 
done.  Pupils  will  often  strike  the  bells  against  the  sides 
of  the  room  or  against  the  bells  of  their  neighbor,  and 
do  it  on  the  side  not  seen  by  the  Jteacher ;  but  this  can  be 
stopped  at  once  if,  as  has  been  said,  the  teacher  is  alert 
and  wide  awake.  The  first  offense  must  be  treated  with- 
out delay. 

When  a  drill  is  taken,  if  the  work  has  not  been  well 
done,  repeat  it.  This  applies  to  any  exercise.  Do  not 
let  a  class  think  that  you  are  satisfied  with  a  movement 
that  is  but  half  done.  When  inarching  for  the  bells  or 
taking  any  position,  so  far  as  it  is  possible,  the  teacher 
should  insist  upon  accurate  work,  and  while  individual 
effort  cannot  be  noticed  so  well,  the  glaring  mistakes  can 
be  corrected  while  the  drill  is  progressing. 

The  combinations  with  the  dumb  bells  are  many.  The 
various  drills  and  exercises  are  numerous,  attractive,  and 
valuable.  Apart  from  these  special  drills,  it  is  well 
frequently  to  give  the  class  specific  work  for  the  arms 


USE  OF   LIGHT   APPARATUS.  223 

(see  "Hints  on  Teaching  Boys"),  making  that  the  sub- 
ject of  the  lesson ;  on  another  day,  special  work  for 
widening  and  deepening  the  chest.  That  is  the  lesson 
which  is  to  be  remembered.  The  scholar  should  be 
taught  something  new  every  day,  and  if  a  series  of 
movements  is  given  that  will  develop  the  muscles  on  the 
front  and  back  of  the  forearm,  it  should  be  so  taught 
that  it  is  impressed  upon  his  mind.  Do  not  expect  that 
everything  given  will  be  remembered. 

Such  exercises  as  the  Anvil  Chorus,  or  the  Pizzicati, 
or  the  Dumb  Bell  Quadrille  have  been  criticised,  011  the 
ground  that  they  are  showy  and  pretty.  It  is  true  that 
they  are  of  the  aesthetic  kind,  but  they  require  muscular 
effort,  self-control,  and  grace  of  movement,  and  requir- 
ing these,  they  produce  them. 

Some  of  our  teachers  make  a  mistake  in  allowing  too 
long  an  interval  between  exercises  of  the  same  kind. 
For  example,  an  instructor  will  begin  the  Anvil  Chorus, 
teach  the  first  third  one  week,  and  not  take  up  the 
second  part  until  two  weeks  later.  It  may  extend  over 
from  one  to  two  months,  so  that  the  child  loses  some  of 
his  interest  in  this  special  drill.  The  exercise  mentioned 
is  only  a  sample.  Do  not  be  in  a  hurry  when  teaching 
gymnastics.  If,  perchance,  the  teacher  is  acquainted 
with  the  drill  which  is  now  somewhat  passe,  the  Anvil 
Chorus,  I  would  suggest  that  she  divide  this  combina- 
tion of  exercises  into  three  parts,  the  first  of  which  in- 
cludes the  quiet  exercises,  arm  and  leg  movements,  the 
second,  the  striking  movements  with  the  bells,  while 
the  third  comprises  one  or  two  striking  and  a  number  of 
silent  movements,  also  the  finish  of  the  drill.  There  is; 


224  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

in  the  first  part  something  noticeable  that  will  make  this 
portion  of  the  drill  easily  remembered,  i.  e.,  that  every 
movement  is  repeated,  and  all  are  taken  on  both  the 
right  and  the  left  sides.  The  teacher  who  will  analyze 
the  arrangement  of  a  drill  will  find  that  there  are  many 
little  things  that  she  can  remember  that  will  be  of 
great  assistance  in  teaching  the  exercise.  Often,  when 
giving  instruction  of  this  character,  the  teacher  will,  for 
the  time  being,  forget  .what  is  coming  next.  This  for- 
getfulness  produces  temporary  embarrassment,  which 
will  be  noticed  by  the  scholars  and  the  accompanist  and 
will  affect  the  teaching.  One  who  is  placed  in  this  posi- 
tion can  go  back  and  repeat  some  exercise  or  some 
portion  of  the  drill,  in  order  to  gain  time  to  collect  her 
scattered  thoughts. 

A  good  combination  of  movements  with  the  dumb 
bells  is  marking  time  in  place,  combined  with  simple 
arm  flexions,  extensions,  arm  swingings,  or  with  strik- 
ing motions.  They  are,  however,  rather  harder  to  teach 
than  the  marching  movements  taken  with  the  same 
exercises.  At  first  all  such  combinations  should  be 
simple.  Do  not  teach  too  many  at  one  lesson  ;  rather 
give  the  pupils  a  drill  in  the  few  than  the  many.  When 
marching  around  the  room,  if  both  sexes  are  represented 
in  the  class,  we  have  frequently  had  the  girls  march  in 
one  direction  and  take  the  outside  track,  and  the  boys 
march  in  another  direction,  taking  the  inside  track. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  girls,  as  a  rule,  behave 
better  than  the  boys.  If  the  latter  were  allowed  to  take 
the  outside  course  and  were  given  the  thrusting  move- 
ments with  the  bells,  they  would  take  great  delight  in 


USE  OF  LIGHT  APPARATUS.  225 

striking  the  walls  or  the  apparatus.  It  is  well  to  avoid 
thrusting  the  arms  out  when  marching.  They  can  be 
thrust  up  or  down  without  requiring  too  much  space. 
The  circling  motions  can  be  given  to  slow  march  time. 

In  Watson's  "Calisthenics"  will  be  found  a  number 
of  very  good  double  drills,  but  they  should  not  be  given 
unless  the  discipline  is  the  very  best.  Whenever  two 
scholars  come  together  they  try  to  have  a  good  time. 

There  are  a  number  of  games*  that  can  be  used  with 
the  bells,  that  we  used  to  give  to  our  classes  on  Friday, 
such  as  passing  the  dumb  bells,  which  is  something  like 
passing  bean  bags,  telegraphing  with  the  bells,  or  the 
relay  race.  Telegraphing  is  done  in  this  fashion  :  The 
scholars  stand  side  by  side,  almost  at  arm's  length,  facing 
tha center  of  the  room,  with  a  dumb  bell  in  each  hand. 
The  teacher  stands  at  the  head  of  the  line  and  strikes 
the  bell  of  the  first  pupil,  who  in  turn  strikes  the  bell  of 
the  second  pupil,  and  thus  the  sound  is  carried  down  the 
class,  each  striking  the  bell  upon  the  right  or  the  left,  the 
last  in  the  line  dropping  his  bell  upon  the  floor  as  soon 
as  the  "  telegram  "  reaches  him.  The  game  is  rather  an 
exciting  one,  and  interesting.  The  relay  race  is  this : 
Ten  boys  are  matched  against  ten  girls.  The  first  boy 
walks  around  the  room  as  rapidly  as  he  can,  carrying  a 
dumb  bell.  In  order  that  he  may  not  cut  the  corners,  a 
boy  is  stationed  at  each  around  whom  he  will  have  to 
walk.  When  he  reaches  the  starting  point  he  stops 
walking,  passes  the  bell  to  the  second  one  in  the  class, 
who,  in  turn,  walks  around  and  hands  it  to  the  third. 
Thus,  in  a  very  short  time  the  ten  boys  have  walked 
around  the  room.  The  time  has  been  recorded  by 


226  METHODS  OF  TEACHING   GYMNASTICS. 

the  teacher,  who  will  in  the  same  way  test  the  girls.* 

THE  WANDS. 

There  are  many  rules  common  to  the  wands,  bells,  and 
clubs.  It  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  them  if  they  have 
been  given  under  any  one  of  the  special  headings.  The 
physical  director  who  uses  these  light  appliances  should 
read  the  articles  as  they  are  given  in  this  book.  Tn 
discipline,  for  example,  the  rule  against  dropping  a  bell 
applies  to  the  wand.  The  teacher  must  be  careful  that 
the  pupils  do  not  get  the  start  in  dropping  wands.  It 
makes  a  great  deal  of  noise,  and  if  one  starts  others  will 
follow.  It  will  be  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the  class,  and 
annoyance  to  the  teacher. 

Children  should  be  allowed  to  use  the  wands  as  soon 
as  they  are  old  enough  to  exercise  with  the  bells,  'flic 
variety  of  work  is  great.  The  wand,  if  it  is  made  of  a 
proper  length  and  diameter,  can  be  used  as  a  gun,  in 
which  case  the  manual  of  arms  and  bayonet  drill  will  be 
found  valuable  and  interesting.  The  teacher,  however, 
must  avoid  the  error  of  supposing  that  the  drill  is  the  end 
of  the  exercise,  and  not  the  means  to  an  end.  The  small 
dowels  that  can  be  purchased  at  many  of  the  hardware 
stores  can  be  used  as  well  as  the  more  expensive  wand. 
The  author  has  purchased  these  at  the  rate  of  one  cent 
each.  They  can  be  sandpapered,  and  will  serve  very 
well  for  the  other  uses  to  which  the  wand  can  be  put, 
viz.:  the  broadsword  drill  for  public  schools,  the  single 
stick,  and  double  and  compound  work. 

Arrange  the  wands  in  somewhat  the  manner  recom- 

*  For  other  games  see  Anderson's  "  Chautauqua  Primer  of  Gym- 
nastics." 


USE  OF   LIGHT  APPARATUS.  227 

mended  for  the  dumb  bells,  but  place  them  in  boxes  in 
different  parts  of  the  room.  Racks  are  found  in  some  of 
the  gymnasia,  but  are  not  so  good  as  the  boxes,  on  ac- 
count of  the  time  required  to  take  and  replace  wands. 

How  to  take  the  wands  is  a  matter  worth  considering. 
The  teacher  should  explain  the  method  of  holding  the 
stick.  Many  will  grasp  the  wand  incorrectly,  as  seen  in 
the  illustration.  (Fig.  22.)  To  make  this  plainer  to  the 
children,  tell  them  to  hold  the  wand  as  they  would  hold 
a  pen,  or  as  in  Fig.  23,  in  which  case  it  rests  in  the  notch 
made  by  the  thumb  and  first  finger.  This,  of  course,  is 
a  small  point,  but  only  attention  to  detail  will  bring 
good  results.  The  question  has  come  up  a  number  of 
times  whether  a  child  should  hold  the  wand  at  carry 
arms,  or  down.  (Fig.  24.)  For  many  reasons,  the 
former  method  is  preferable,  although  more  difficult  to 
teach. 

The  teacher  should  give  wands  to  the  scholars  after 
they  have  been  well  grounded  in  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  free  gymnastics.  She  should  warn  them  about 
disobeying  the  few  rules  that  are  made,  and  call  their 
attention  to  dropping  the  wand  or  moving  it  away  from 
the  body.  If  the  scholars  are  anxious  to  take  the  wands 
the  teacher  should  take  advantage  of  their  desire,  but 
the  business  part  of  the  drill  comes  when  the  few  rules 
are  made.  It  is  better  for  the  teacher  to  appoint  moni- 
tors, the  first  or  last  in  each  row,  or  any  special  scholar 
in  whom  she  has  confidence,  to  step  to  one  box,  select  a 
sufficient  number  of  wands  for  those  in  the  file,  then 
take  a  standing  position  at  the  head  of  the  row.  When 
all  the  monitors  are  so  placed,  the  teacher  gives  the 


228  METHODS  OF  TEACHING   GYMNASTICS. 

command  for  the  distribution,  when  the  monitors  step 
down  and  hand  a  wand  to  each  pupil. 

We  must  make  some  allowance  for  the  boy  or  girl  who 
means  to  do  well,  but  occasionally  forgets.  A  child,  for 
example,  unwittingly  violates  a  rule,  and  is  requested 
to  return  the  wand  to  the  box.  It  is  not  wise  to  be  too 
severe  in  a  case  of  this  kind.  If  the  boy  admits  that  he 
has  made  a  mistake  and  is  willing  to  do  better  in  the 
future,  allow  him  again  to  take  the  wand. 

The  objection  to  marching  for  the  wands  is  the  same 
as  that  to  marching  for  bells.  It  should  not  be  done  un- 
til the  class  understands  well  the  simple  movements 
in  military  gymnastics.  They  are  then  to  march  in 
single  file  past  the  box,  each  pupil  selecting  a  wand  and 
bringing  it  to  carry  arms.  They  then  proceed  to  their 
footmarks  or  positions  on  the  floor. 

The  teacher  should  give  the  class  a  drill  in  taking  and 
replacing  the  wands.  Do  not  be  too  anxious  to  begin 
the  exercise.  If  the  chief  part  of  the  first  lesson  is 
given  to  the  method  of  securing  apparatus,  the  children 
will  be  apt  to  remember  and  more  ready  to  obey  the  next 
time.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  teacher  is  careless  and 
is  too  anxious  to  proceed  with  the  drill,  here,  as  in  other 
exercises,  she  must  pay  the  penalty  later  on,  and  the 
blame  for  confusion,  disorder,  and  poor  work  rests  on 
her,  and  not  on  the  scholars. 

The  simple  alphabet  of  movements  with  the  wand 
would  include  these  terms :  wand  down,  front,  up,  out 
to  the  right  or  left,  right  arm  or  left  arm  front  or  up,  the 
right  and  left  hand  salutes,  wand  on  the  chest,  wand 
front  and  twisted.  These,  of  course,  can  be  taken  with 


OFTHX 

UNIVERSITY 


USE  OF  LIGHT  APPARATUS.  229 

the  stepping,  foot  placing,  charging,  and  lunging  mo- 
tions. The  combination  of  movements  is  almost  count- 
less. In  addition  to  the  simple  and  compound  move- 
ments, the  teacher  can  give  the  class  instruction  in  the 
manual  of  arms,  under  which  heading  would  come 
present,  port,  charge,  order,  firing,  the  kneeling  move- 
ments, reverse  arms,  etc.  (See  "Light  Gymnastics.") 
Special  drills  can  be  given  for  the  development  of 
different  parts  of  the  body,  viz.:  the  arms,  shoulders, 
front,  back,  and  sides  of  the  waist.  Running  exercises 
have  been  given,  but  the  wand  interferes  with  the  action 
of  the  arms. 

Too  much  value  should  not  be  placed  upon  the  series 
with  the  wands.  It  is  better  that  the  drill  should  be 
given  with  some  purpose  in  view,  rather  than  an  aimless 
line  of  exercises  that  are  only  for  exhibition.  The 
teacher  at  each  lesson  should  give  motions  that  will  tend 
to  draw  the  shoulders  back  to  place,  to  widen  and 
deepen  the  chest,  to  develop  the  muscles  of  the  waist 
and  back.  Simple  attitudes  have  been  given,  and  are 
valuable  because  they  require  bodily  control.  The  line 
work  is  good  at  times,  but  should  not  be  given  unless 
the  scholars  are  well  disciplined.  As  with  the  poles, 
pupils  have  an  opportunity  to  play,  and  it  is  not  easy  to 
pick  out  the  culprit.  There  are  so  many  good  drills  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  take  the  space  here  for  a  description 
of  any  of  them. 

INDIAN  CLUBS. 

The  work  with  the  Indian  clubs  is  always  interesting. 
It  is  popular  and  there  is  a  universal  call  for  it.  It 
is  not  easy  for  one  to  learn  all  that  can  be  given  in 


230  METHODS  OF  TEACHING   GYMNASTICS. 

club  swinging.  While  the  simple  movements  that  are 
taught  at  the  first  lessons  may  be  mastered  in  a  few- 
weeks,  the  more  difficult  combinations,  including  the 
snakes  and  reverse  snakes,  will  require  long-continued 
practice.  The  value  of  club  swinging  has  frequently 
been  questioned,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  some  of  the 
movements  tend  to  cramp  the  chest  and  to  flatten  its 
walls.  On  the  other  hand,  the  long  circles  to  the  right 
and  left  elevate  the  shoulders,  produce  vacuums  in  the 
apices  of  the  lungs,  so  that  for  some  forms  of  threatened 
lung  trouble  they  are  really  beneficial.  Another  argu- 
ment against  club  swinging  is  that  only  the  arms  and 
the  trunk  of  the  body  are  used.  There  would  be  some 
weight  to  this  statement  if  it  were  true,  but  many  of  the 
exercises  that  are  given  require  arm  work  combined  with 
leg  action.  Dr.  Seaver  gave  a  club  drill  for  a  number  of 
years  which  was  about  the  same  to  Yale  that  the  Hitch- 
cock dumb  bell  drill  was  to  Amherst.  He  succeeded  in 
deriving  as  much  benefit  from  the  club  movements  as 
many  teachers  would  from  free  gymnastics  and  with  the 
bells.  The  arm  swinging  movements  were  combined 
with  charging,  lunging,  and  swaying  exercises.  In  the 
German  gymnastics  one  will  see  a  combination  of  the 
long  circles  with  stepping,  facing,  and  turning  move- 
ments. It  is  not  wise  for  the  teacher  to  confine  her 
drills  to  circling  motions,  which  too  often  necessitate 
standing  still. 

Frequently  children  are  allowed  to  take  but  one  club, 
in  which  case  they  hold  it  down,  as  they  would  a  wand, 
when  they  are  given  the  flexing  movements  of  the  arms, 
swinging  the  club  front  and  up,  combining  these  move- 


USE  OF  LIGHT  APPARATUS.  231 

ments  with  stepping,  charging,  and  swaying  exercises. 

The  clubs  should  not  be  given  to  the  children  until 
they  have  been  well  grounded  in  the  principles  of  free 
gymnastics  and  have  used  the  wands  and  the  bells. 
There  is  more  danger  when  a  class  is  beginning  club 
swinging  than  when  using  any  other  piece  of  apparatus. 
The  careless  child  will  swing  the  club  around  the  head 
and  may  strike  the  one  standing  upon  the  right  or  the 
left  or  immediately  back  of  him.  If  the  club  slips  and 
strikes  some  one  the  result  may.  be  serious.  Again, 
the  movements  not  well  taught  will  result  in  injury  to 
the  person's  own  body.  The  lower  front  circle  has  been 
given  in  such  a  way  that  the  child  would  strike  his  own 
face  with  the  end  of  the  club.  Do  not  give  two  clubs  to 
pupils  at  the  first  lesson. 

A  drill  should  be  given  in  the  method  of  taking  and 
replacing  clubs.  The  first  time  they  are  used  the  pupils 
in  one  line  are  allowed  to  break  ranks,  step  to  the  racks, 
each  scholar  take  one  club,  and  come  back  to  position. 
A  stated  time  is  allowed  for  the  selection  of  apparatus, 
and  if  all  the  scholars  are  not  back  within  this  limit, 
then  is  the  time  for  questioning.  The  children,  after 
taking  the  apparatus,  should  stand  strictly  in  place,  the 
club  in  the  right  hand  and  at  the  side.  Scholars  who 
disobey  should  be  punished  immediately.  A  great 
penalty  is  replacing  the  club  in  the  rack  and  doing  only 
the  arm  work.  At  the  close  of  the  lesson  the  pupils,  one 
row  at  a  time,  replace  the  clubs  and  return  to  footmarks. 
The  teacher  must  look  out  for  these  difficulties :  drop- 
ping the  clubs,  or  letting  them  slip  from  the  hand  while 
making  the  circles.  The  children  under  no  conditions 


232  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

should  be  allowed  to  make  the  circles  while  the  other 
members  of  the  class  are  taking  or  replacing  their  clubs. 

A  few  words  about  the  weight.  Clubs  should  not 
weigh  more  than  two  pounds  for  the  oldest  and  strongest 
classes.  At  Yale  University  the  two-pound  clubs  are 
popular,  the  men  preferring  them  to  the  "three- 
pounders."  For  children,  three-quarter  and  half-pound 
clubs  are  suitable.  There  are  numerous  models  made, 
but  the  one  shown  in  the  illustrations  is  recommended, 
on  account  of  its  shape^  size,  and  what  is  called  "the 
balance." 

If  a  teacher  thinks  it  is  better  to  have  the  scholars 
inarch  from  files  and  take  the  clubs,  and  the  classes  are 
mixed,  the  girls  should  march  first.  They  will  obey 
rules  better  than  boys,  and  do  not  swing  their  clubs  back 
and  forth  when  they  have  returned  to  their  footmarks. 

Frequently  it  happens  that  after  a  class  has  been 
placed  upon  the  floor  and  is  at  work  with  clubs,  schol- 
ars will  enter  the  room  and  start  at  once  for  the  foot- 
marks. This  is  dangerous.  The  class  should  be  brought 
to  an  immediate  halt,  or  the  scholar  should  be  re- 
quested to  come  to  the  platform.  The  latter  is  prefer- 
able. The  class  should  be  drilled  in  halting  instantly. 
It  may  be  that  one  member  of  a  class  will  drop  the 
club,  and  if  it  goes  rolling  along  the  floor,  he  will, 
regardless  of  the  danger,  run  after  it,  and  very  likely  be 
struck  by  another  pupil.  If  a  club  is  dropped,  the  com- 
mand halt  should  be  given  at  once,  and  if  the  scholars 
are  well  drilled  they  will  obey  the  command.  It  is  bet- 
ter, however,  to  teach  prevention  than  to  cure,  and 
the  individual  should  be  cautioned  against  attempting  to 


•USE  OF  LIGHT  APPARATUS.  233 

secure  the  club.  In  some  cases  the  hand  will  become 
moist  from  perspiration,  and  the  club  will  easily  slip. 
Again,  if  the  fingers  are  fatigued,  the  club  may  drop. 
The  scholar  who  is  tired  should  not  continue  the  exer- 
cise. Permission  should  be  given  him  to  stand  at  place 
rest  with  the  club  at  the  side. 

In  club  swinging  every  movement  and  position 
should  be  analyzed.  Only  two  directions  are  used  in 
making  the  long  circles,  namely,  to  the  right  and  the 
left,  and  front  and  rear.  We  do  not,  as  a  rule,  swing 
the  clubs  in  the  oblique  directions  when  making  the 
complete  or  the  long  circles.  It  is  well  for  the  teacher 
at  the  start  to  indicate  by  a  movement  of  the  hand  or 
head  in  which  direction  the  club  is  to  go. 

In  answer  to  the  question,  "How  far  apart  should 
scholars  stand  when  swinging  two  clubs?"  they  can 
stand  six  feet  and  take  all  double  and  follow  work  to 
the  sides  or  to  the  front  and  rear,  but  reel  work,  where 
both  arms  swing  out  in  different  directions,  should  not 
be  given.  When  pupils  stand  seven  or  more  feet  apart 
all  circles  can  be  taken. 

There  are  only  two  kinds  of  circles  in  club  swinging  : 
first,  the  long  one,  in  which  the  shoulder  is  near  the  cen- 
ter of  the  circle  ;  second,  the  short  one,  or  a  wrist  circle. 
The  short  circles  are  made  at  the  shoulder,  above  the 
head,  at  arm's  length  in  any  direction,  hip  high  in 
front,  and  back  of  the  body— the  latter  being  considered 
the  hardest  circles.  A  combination  of  any  two  circles 
is  called  a  complete  circle.  For  example,  the  child 
makes  what  is  termed  a  heart-shaped  circle  to  the  right; 
he  then  makes  the  short  circle  at  the  shoulder.  Making 


234  METHODS  OF  TEACHING   GYMNASTICS. 

these  two  without  a  stop  is  a  complete  exercise.  In  the 
same  way  the  complete  lower  front,  the  complete  lower 
back,  and  the  complete  overhead  circles  are  made. 

A  motion  is  made  with  two  clubs  to  the  right  or  left. 
This  is  called  a  double  exercise.  The  circles  are  made  to 
the  right  or  the  left  with  one  club  leading  and  the  other 
club  following.  This  is  termed  a  follow  circle.  One  club 
goes  to  the  right  and  makes  a  long  circle,  while  the  other 
makes  a  short  circle  to  the  left.  This  would  be  called 
reel  time. 

The  teacher  is  cautioned  about  using  different  terms 
for  the  same  exercise.  In  our  American  system  of  gym- 
nastics we  have  no  nomenclature.  One  teacher  may  use 
her  own  terms  ;  another  teacher  will  use  entirely  differ- 
ent words  for  the  same  command.  The  instructor  who 
will  analyze  every  exercise  will  find  that  she  can  teach 
it  better.  The  heart-shaped  circle,  for  example,  should 
be  carefully  dissected.  It  consists  in  starting  the  club 
from  the  fundamental  position,  raising  the  hand  a  little 
higher  than  the  head,  swinging  out  to  the  right,  making 
almost  a  complete  circle,  and  bringing  it  back  to  posi- 
tion. The  pupil  who  wears  tight  clothing  will  make 
what  is  called  a  forearm  circle,  the  elbow  being  near  the 
center,  rather  than  the  shoulder. 

The  pass  is  a  term  frequently  used.  It  means  that  the 
club  is  passed  from  the  right  to  the  left  hand.  It  is  used 
only  when  the  pupils  are  exercising  with  one  club. 

If  too  much  time  has  been  given  to  the  short  or  the 
complete  shoulder  circles,  the  shoulder  should  be  rested, 
and  the  pendulum  movements  given.  If  it  happens 
that  the  child  is  fatigued,  stop  the  arm  work  for  the 


USE  OF  LIGHT  APPARATUS.  235 

time,  and  give  the  class  a  drill  for  the  legs,  such  as  the 
stepping  or  swaying  motions,  raising  on  the  toes,  or  flex- 
ing the  legs.  A  great  mistake  made  by  teachers  is  giv- 
ing too  much  at  one  lesson. 

Analysis  of  the  drop  circle.  This  consists  of  two 
movements — the  double  shoulder  circles,  and  the  double 
pendulum.  Do  not  teach  this  until  the  class  has  been 
thoroughly  drilled  in  each  part.  The  single  pendulum 
consists  in  swinging  the  club  from  right  to  left,  shoulder 
high,  as  seen  in  the  illustration.  (Fig.  25.)  Beginners 
will  swing  the  clubs  above  the  head.  Unless  the  in- 
structor emphasizes  the  necessity  of  stopping  the  clubs 
at  the  height  of  the  shoulder  she  will  not  obtain  good 
results.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  she  will  take  a  few 
seconds  to  say  that  the  scholars  should  stop  the  clubs 
at  a  certain  height  and  then  permit  them  to  swing 
the  clubs  to  that  position  and  stop  them,  she  will  add 
emphasis  to  her  teaching. 

Analysis  of  the  reel.  This  consists  of  the  complete 
shoulder  circles  out,  the  right  hand  going  to  the  right 
and  the  left  hand  to  the  left.  A  method  of  teaching  the 
exercise  is  this :  Permit  the  scholars  to  make  the  heart- 
shaped  circle  with  the  left  hand,  the  shoulder  circle  with 
the  right  hand,  out.  Let  them  take  it  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  times  to  make  it  almost  automatic.  Next  reverse 
this,  and  let  them  make  the  short  circle  with  the  left 
hand  and  the  long  circle  with  the  right,  and  so  continue 
until  the  circles  are  easily  made  with  either  arm.  At 
the  finish  there  is  a  short  pause.  Two  counts  are  given 
for  the  motion.  Later  on  they  can  pass  to  the  "  reel," 
which  is  a  continuous  movement. 


236  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

Analysis  of  the  "snake."  First  teach  pupils  how  to 
grasp  the  club.  (Fig.  26.)  The  snake  is  made  from  a 
swinging  start,  either  at  the  end  of  a  short  or  long  circle. 
The  lower  start  is  preferable,  i.  e.,  with  the  club  hanging 
at  the  side,  in  which  case  the  arm  is  carried  across  the 
body  and  held  as  seen  in  the  illustration.  (Fig.  27.)  From 
this  position  it  is  thrown  around  to  the  right  and  rests 
upon  the  top  of  the  arm.  The  points  to  consider  are 
these :  the  club  is  parallel  to  the  floor ;  it  is  grasped  by 
the  second,  third,  and  little  fingers  ;  the  thumb  is  under- 
neath, and  the  first  finger  upon  the  knob  of  the  club. 
There  are  three  parts  to  this  movement,  only  one  of  which 
is  to  be  taught  at  a  lesson,  viz.:  the  fundamental  starting 
position,  and  the  first  circle,  which  is  described  thus  : 

The  free  end  of  the  club  is  carried  around  under  the 
chin,  an  important  point  to  remember,  because  it  in- 
sures a  right  start.  At  the  end  of  the  first  third  of  .the 
circle  the  club  is  held  in  this  awkward  position,  the 
elbow  well  raised,  the  club  in  front  of  the  chest  and  par- 
allel to  the  floor.  It  continues  around  until  the  first 
circle  is  finished,  at  which  time  the  club  is  under  the 
arm,  and  is  held  as  seen  in  Fig.  28. 

The  second  is  the  hardest  of  the  three.  It  is  made  by 
turning  the  back  of  the  hand  in,  so  that  we  have 
the  position  shown  in  Fig.  28.  The  free  end  of  the  club 
passes  under  the  axilla,  around  in  front  of  the  chest, 
the  hand  going  back,  almost  touching  the  side  of  the 
body,  until  the  club,  still  parallel  to  the  floor,  rests  on 
top  of  the  forearm,  the  thumb  being  up,  and  the  back  of 
the  hand  to  the  front.  This  finishes  the  second  circle. 
(See  Fig.  29.) 


OF 


Or  „.  ____  ^ 


USE  OF  LIGHT  APPARATUS.  237 

The  third  consists  of  a  quick  swing  or  (for  lack  of  a 
better  word)  "  sling,"  the  club  being  thrown  out  and 
around  and  caught  on  the  fleshy  part  of  the  arm  in  the 
starting  position.  (Fig.  27.)  These  three  circles  con- 
stitute the  horizontal  snake.  If  the  motion  is  taken 
rapidly  it  can  be  made  so  that  the  hand  does  not  go 
back,  even  with  the  side  of  the  body. 

Now  take  the  swing  out  from  the  end  of  the  second 
circle,  to  some  other  short  or  long  circle.  The  second 
turn  is  finished  with  the  club  as  seen  in  Fig.  29.  To 
swing  out  for  the  lower  front  the  hand  is  raised  over 
the  shoulders,  the  club  pendant,  from  which  position 
the  club  is  again  swung  up,  or  we  fling  it  up,  which 
leaves  us  in  position  to  make  a  lower  back  or  lower 
front.  Only  two  of  the  three  snake  circles  are  made, 
then  the  club  is  thrown  out  for  some  combination  at  the 
end  of  the  second.  The  hard  parts  are  the  catch  as  the 
club  is  thrown  into  position  and  the  first  and  second 
circles. 

The  difference  between  a  horizontal  and  a  perpendicu- 
lar snake  is  that  in  the  first  the  club  is  parallel  to  the 
floor,  and  in  the  second  it  is  in  a  perpendicular  position  ; 
of  the  two,  the  perpendicular  snake  is  the  harder. 

There  is  what  is  called  the  half  snake— a  perpendicular 
movement.  The  club  may  swing  from  below  or  from 
the  fundamental  starting  position  out,  make  a  long 
circle,  and  swing  into  the  second  of  the  movements 
which  make  the  snake,  the  arm  being  shaped  a  little 
like  a  swan's  neck  (Fig.  30 ),  from  which  position  the 
circle  is  finished. 

The  reverse  snake  may  be  learned  by  making  one 


238  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

regular  snake  and  then  going  back  over  the  same  ground. 
Better  still,  one  part  must  be  made  at  a  time,  and  then 
the  movement  reversed.* 

FENCING. 

This  exercise  is  reserved  for  advanced  pupils.  The 
drill  that  is  set  aside  for  scholars  is  called  the  school 
form  of  broadsword  exercises.  It  is  neither  wise  nor 
safe  to  allow  the  pupils  in  classes  where  masks  are 
not  worn  to  practice  what  may  be  termed  the  French 
or  Italian  system  of  foil  fencing,  in  which  the  child 
thrusts  or  pokes  his  sword  at  another.  In  broadsword, 
all  of  the  work  consists  of  giving  light  blows,  which 
may  be  easily  and  safely  warded. 

The  implements  used  are  wands  or  dowels.  They  are 
three  feet  in  length  and  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  They  will  break  easily,  but  it  does  not  cost 
much  to  replace  them.  The  teacher  will  find  that  the 
young  men  take  delight  in  striking  hard  blows,  the 
result  of  which  is  the  destruction  of  the  dowel  or  fencing 
stick.  If  these  strong  young  men  are  requested  to  pay 
for  the  swords  they  break,  the  loss  will  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 

A  light  wooden  sword,  with  detachable  handle,  cost- 
ing from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  cents,  can  be  purchased 
from  the  firms  which  make  a  specialty  of  manufactur- 
ing gymnastic  apparatus.  This  is  more  popular  than 
the  dowel,  because  it  is  furnished  with  handle  and  guard 
and  it  looks  like  a  sword. 

The  swords  may  be  kept  in  racks  ;  the  dowels,  which 

*  Address  Dr.  Luther  Gulick,  Springfield,  Mass.,  for  illustrated 
article  on  the  snake. 


USE  OF  LIGHT  APPARATUS.  239 

serve  the  double  purpose  of  swords  and  wands,  should 
be  kept  in  the  boxes.  If  the  scholars  are  old  enough  to 
take  the  fencing  drill,  they  are  sufficiently  advanced  to 
march  for  the  swords. 

The  preliminary  movements  in  fencing  should  be  given 
before  the  scholar  is  allowed  to  take  the  sword.  These 
include  the  positions  of  the  feet,  arms,  and  body,  and  the 
passing  to  what  is  called  the  position  of  "on  guard. n 
The  method  of  teaching  is  this  : 

The  pupils  assume  the  fundamental  standing  position, 
which  see.  The  command  is  given,  "Scholars,  left 
oblique  (or  half  face  to  the  left),  face  !  "  Next  place  the 
feet  at  right  angles,  in  which  case  the  right  foot  points 
directly  to  the  front,  the  left  foot  to  the  left.  It  will  re- 
quire more  time  to  place  the  feet  properly  than  it  does  to 
turn  the  body  45°.  Place  the  hands  on  the  hips,  where 
they  are  out  of  the  way,  and  give  the  class  a  drill  in 
bending  the  knees,  as  seen  in  the  illustration.  (Fig.  31.) 
This  exercise  should  be  repeated  a  number  of  times. 
Notice  that  the  feet  are  on  the  floor,  the  heels  are  not 
raised,  the  eyes  and  face  are  to  the  front.  After  bending 
the  knees,  teach  advancing  the  right  foot  two  foot  lengths 
straight  to  the  front.  The  teacher  must  insist  upon  the 
scholar  advancing  the  foot  directly  to  the  front,  and  not 
in  an  oblique  direction.  If  after  executing  the  half  face 
to  the  left  the  foot  rests  upon  one  board  or  line  running 
to  the  front,  it  should  rest  upon  the  same  board  or  line 
when  it  is  advanced  two  foot  lengths  to  the  front.  The 
right  arm  may  then  be  advanced  directly  to  the  front, 
then  it  can  be  bent  until  the  elbow  is  about  the  height  of 
the  chest,  the  distance  between  the  elbow  and  the  chest 


240  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

being  seven  or  eight  inches.  Scholars  who  tire  easily 
will  allow  the  elbow  to  rest  against  the  side  of  the  waist. 
This  is  wrong. 

It  will  require  one  or  two  lessons  to  perfect  the  schol- 
ars in  these  preliminary  light  movements,  but  they 
should  be  thoroughly  mastered  before  the  sword  is  used. 

After  they  are  able  to  place  the  feet  in  a  proper  posi- 
tion and  understand  how  the  arms  are  held,  permit  them 
to  take  the  sword,  and  in  the  seven  counts  which  are  de- 
scribed in  "Light  Gymnastics,"  page  178,  pass  to  the 
position  of  "on  guard."  The  difficult  part  to  teach  is 
the  position  of  the  sword,  or  right  arm.  The  teacher 
should  carefully  analyze  every  position  and  every 
part  of  the  attitude,  before  attempting  to  teach.  She 
should  also  have  rehearsed  all  before  the  mirror,  work- 
ing on  her  left  side. 

The  striking  movements  are  made  in  two  ways  :  first, 
by  swaying  the  body  forward  and  extending  the  arm ; 
second,  by  advancing  the  foot  one  foot  length  to  the 
front,  making  what  is  called  the  three-quarter  lunge. 
Scholars  strike  at  their  opponent's  sword,  instead 
of  aiming  at  these  parts  of  the  body,  the  top  of  the 
head,  the  cheeks,  the  round  of  the  shoulders,  and  the 
middle  of  the  thighs.  A  mistake  often  made  is  this: 
Pupils  do  not  advance  the  right  foot  far  enough,  or  sway 
the  body  sufficiently,  to  touch  their  opponent.  This  is 
more  apt  to  be  the  case  when  giving  the  leg  blows. 
Still  another  mistake  is  the  failure  to  return  to  the  posi- 
tion of  "on  guard "  after  a  blow  has  been  struck.  This 
should  be  corrected,  otherwise  scholars  will  always  be 
careless  about  returning  to  the  correct  position,  and  it 


USE  OF  LIGHT  APPARATUS.  241 

will  be  seen  that  either  the  arms  are  curved  too  much  or 
the  point  of  the  sword  is  above  the  top  of  the  head. 

Fencing  will  tire  out  the  right  arm.  It  is  well,  there- 
fore, to  drill  the  scholars  on  the  left  side. 

Many  of  the  young  ladies  in  our  schools  have  been 
averse  to  taking  the  correct  position  with  the  feet.  They 
prefer  to  stand  with  the  knees  perfectly  straight.  A 
little  patience  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  this  mistake 
will  be  remedied. 


OHAPTEE  XVIII. 

MANNERISMS. 

ONE  who  has  made  a  study  of  teachers,  especially 
beginners,  will  have  noticed  the  many  useless  motions 
made  by  her  during  a  lesson— the  swinging  of  the  arms, 
the  twitching  of  the  fingers,  the  clutching  at  the  dress, 
the  changing  of  the  position  of  the  body.  She  gives  a 
command,  then  takes  a  short  step  ;  gives  another  com- 
mand, then  steps  backward ;  explains  an  exercise  and 
steps  to  the  right  or  the  left — in  short,  moves  from  place 
to  place,  in  an  aimless  way,  every  time  she  makes  an  ex- 
planation. Another  teacher,  while  speaking  to  the 
class,  will  sway  from  one  side  to  another  ;  that  one  will 
arrange  some  portion  of  her  dress ;  this  one  will  bring 
the  hand  to  the  face  or  fix  the  collar.  They  too  fre- 
quently clasp  their  hands  in  front  of  them,  or  rest  the 
elbows  on  the  hips  if  they  are  women,  or  clasp  the  hands 
back  of  them  if  they  are  men.  The  hands  too  often  rest 
upon  the  hips.  One  man  used  to  twirl  his  moustache 
when  he  gave  new  commands  or  was  at  all  annoyed  or 
embarrassed.  Another  would  scratch  his  head  every 
time  he  gave  a  certain  command,  or  was  in  any  way  dis- 
turbed. 

Teachers  who  make  mistakes  in  speaking  are  apt  to 
make  some  useless  motion  with  some  portion  of  the 
body.  This  is  an  evidence  of  embarrassment ;  it  soon 

242 


MANNERISMS.  243 

comes  to  be  a  habit.  Sew  up  the  pockets  of  some  of 
our  young  men,  and  they  would  hardly  know  how  to 
act  in  company.  The  average  student  puts  his  hands  in 
his  pockets  on  all  occasions.  It  is  a  studied  mannerism 
with  many  young  men.  In  college  there  was  a  student 
who  had  the  habit  of  looking  at  a  certain  place  on  the 
wall  every  time  he  recited.  On  one  occasion  he  was  re- 
moved to  another  part  of  the  room  and,  when  called 
upon  to  recite,  failed  in  his  lesson  because  he  could  not 
find  this  particular  spot.  Another  had  the  habit  of 
playing  with  his  watch  charm.  One  day  this  was  quietly 
removed  just  before  his  recitation.  The  result  *was  a 
signal  failure  when  he  was  called  upon  to  recite. 

There  are  ministers,  teachers,  lawyers,  who  are  addicted 
to  certain  useless  movements.  For  example,  one  minister 
invariably  unbuttoned  his  coat,  placed  his  handkerchief 
on  the  Bible,  wiped  his  face  with  the  handkerchief,  and 
arched  his  chest,  before  he  began  the  long  prayer.  The 
author,  as  a  boy,  watched  this  man  every  Sunday,  and 
wondered  if  his  prayer  was  better  because  of  the  extra 
movements.  Teachers  stand  in  place  rest  while  giving 
instruction  to  the  class  or  leading  in  military  drill.  The 
plan  is  a  bad  one.  Few  instructors  can  stand  well  while 
teaching.  Some  mannerisms  are  amusing,  others  are 
disagreeable.  It  is,  of  course,  not  always  desirable  for  a 
teacher  to  stand  perfectly  still  while  directing  a  class, 
but  there  are  times  when  she  should,  and  when  the  time 
comes  she  cannot.  It  is  recommended  that  teachers 
practice  controlling  themselves  while  standing  before 
their  pupils.  The  members  of  the  class  will  very  often 
unconsciously  imitate  the  St.  Vitus-like  motions  of  the 


244  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

teacher.  In  one  case,  where  the  instructor  was  very 
much  stooped,  the  little  children  tried  their  best  to  stand 
as  if  they  were  suffering  from  kyphosis. 

The  nervous,  irritable  teacher  seems  to  have  harder 
work  than  the  phlegmatic  one,  but  the  power  to  over- 
come mannerisms  is,  to  some  extent,  an  acquired  one. 
There  is  hardly  an  argument  in  favor  of  these  unneces- 
sary motions.  They  indicate  lack  of  self-control ;  they 
show  nervousness,  embarrassment,  awkwardness,  and 
are  frequently  unpleasant  to  the  pupil  and  to  the 
teacher.  They  are  indications  of  wasted  energy.  The 
teacher  who  does  not  know  what  her  mannerisms  are 
should  ask  some  candid  friend  to  tell  her  when  she 
makes  mistakes.  If  she  will  watch  other  teachers,  she 
will  very  soon  see  that  the  statements  made  under  this 
heading  are  not  exaggerated.  Let  the  teacher  make  a 
study  of  herself,  and  she  need  not  call  on  any  of  her 
friends  to  criticise  her.  It  might  be  well  for  the  one 
who  reads  this  article  to  see  whether  there  is  a  beam  in 
her  own  eye  before  she  attempts  to  remove  the  mote 
from  her  sister's.  That  these  errors  should  be  corrected 
there  is  no  doubt.  They  detract  much  from  the  teacher's 
personal  appearance.  While  physical  education  will  be 
apt  to  cause  mannerisms  as  quickly  as  any  other  profes- 
sion, at  the  same  time  the  teacher  can,  if  she  wishes, 
overcome  the  tendency  quicker  than  those  who  do  not 
pay  attention  to  muscular  training.  Of  course,  will 
power  is  needed,  and  in  return,  will  power  is  developed 
if  the  defect  is  remedied.  The  author  calls  to  mind  only 
two  of  his  many  instructors  who  could  stand  perfectly 
still  while  leading  a  class. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

DIVISION  OF  WORK  FOB  THE  MONTH  AND  DAY. 
MILITARY  GYMNASTICS. 

BELOW  will  be  found  an  arrangement  of  lessons  for  a 
class  of  beginners.  This  can  be  given  to  a  normal  class 
in  three  months,  after  which  time  the  teacher  can  give 
any  of  the  work  found  in  "  Light  Gymnastics, "  using 
her  own  judgment  as  to  the  kind  and  amount. 

The  teacher  should  make  a  certain  part  of  the  drill  a 
u  lesson "  ;  that  is,  she  should  give  something  new, 
should  see  that  the  class  learns  it,  and  then  she  can  give 
any  review  work. 

The  author  generally  adds  a  little  to  what  is  found  in 
the  list,  but  it  is  something  the  class  has  had  before. 

Lesson  No.  1. 
Fall  in. 
Align. 
Dressing. 

Position  of  a  soldier,  or  Attention. 
Place  rest. 
Break  ranks. 

Lesson  No.  2. 

Right,  left,  and  oblique  face. 
Marking  time  by 
Stamping,  tapping. 
Swing  the  leg. 

245 


246  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

Regular  method. 

Halt  from  marking  time. 

Lesson  No.  S. 
About  facing,  German  and  American  methods. 

Lesson  No.  4. 
The  start. 
Marching  in  a  file. 
Turning  corners. 
Halting. 

Lesson  No.  5. 
Changing  direction. 
Column  right  and  left. 
Column  half  right  and  left. 
Counter  marching  to  right  and  left. 

Lesson  No.  6. 
Cadence.    Common  time. 
Short  step. 
Back  step. 

Lesson  No.  7. 
Side  step. 
Quick  time. 

Lesson  No.  8. 
Double  time. 

Lesson  No.  9. 
March  in  a  line. 
Guides. 

Lesson  No.  10. 
Oblique  marching. 

Lesson  No.  11. 
Form  twos  from  a  file. 
Eight  and  left  by  file. 


DIVISION  OF  WORK.  247 

Lesson  No.  1$. 
Torm  fours  from  file. 
Right  by  twos. 
Right  by  file. 

Lesson  No.  IS. 
Change  step. 

Lesson  No.  14. 
To  the  rear,  inarch. 

Lesson  No.  15. 
Marching  by  the  flank. 

Lesson  No.  16. 

Marching  four  abreast  and  turning  corners. 
Marching  four  abreast  and  keeping  distance. 

Lesson  No.  17. 
Fours  right  or  left. 

Lesson  No.  18. 
Fours  right  or  left  about. 

Lesson  No.  19. 
Fours  in  circle. 

Lesson  No.  20. 
Opening  files. 

Lesson  No.  21. 
Wheeling  on  a  fixed  pivot. 

Lesson  No.  22. 
Wheeling  on  a  movable  pivot. 

Lesson  No.  S3. 
'Oblique  marching  two  and  four  abreast. 

Lesson  No.  24. 

From  column  of  twos  form  a  line. 
J?roni  a  line  form  column  of  twos. 


OP  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


248  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

Lesson  No.  25. 
From  line  form  fours. 
From  fours  form  line. 

Lesson  No.  26. 
Bight,  forward,  fours  right. 

Lesson  No.  27. 
On  the  right  or  left  into  line. 

Lesson  No.  28. 
In  double  ranks  form  company. 

FREE  GYMNASTICS. 

Arrangement  of  lessons  in  light  gymnastics  for  the 
gymnastic  year  for  a  normal  class. 

There  is  such  a  great  variety  of  work  to  be  given  under 
this  heading  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  give  anything 
like  a  complete  list  or  to  classify  all  the  movements. 

The  teacher  understands  that  these  arrangements  are 
tentative  to  a  degree,  that  they  will  be  modified  with 
experience,  and  that  they  do  not  take  the  place  of  the 
regular  drill  in  body  building. 

If  the  author  should  make  any  criticism  it  would  be 
that  too  much  is  given  at  a  single  lesson. 

Lesson  No.  1. 
Planes  of  body. 
Directions. 
Arms  down,  up,  front,  out. 

Lesson  No.  2. 

A  typical  lesson.    (Follow  the  day's  order.) 
Feet  open  and  close. 
Foot  placing.    Figs.  12  and  14. 

Lesson  No.  3. 
Stepping  exercise.  Fig.  10. 


DIVISION  OF  WORK. 

Lesson  No.  4. 
'Order  movements. 
Hips  firm.    Fig.  32. 
Neck  firm.     Fig.  33. 
Letter  Y.    Fig.  6. 
Clasping  hands. 
Arms  folded. 

Lessons  Nos.  5  and  6. 
The  charging  motion.    Fig.  11. 

Lesson  No.  7. 
The  reverse  charge.     Fig.  13. 

Lesson  No.  8. 
The  swaying  motions. 

Lesson  No.  9. 
Wide  and  narrow  bases. 
Lessons  Nos.  10  and  11.    Subject,  the  head. 
Bending  and  turning. 
Rolling. 

Oblique  movements. 
Forcing. 
Resistance. 

Lesson  No.  12.    Subject,  the  leg. 
Heel  raising. 
Foot  flexing. 

Foot  extension  and  circling. 
(This  is  for  ankle,  front,  and  back  leg.) 

Lesson  No.  13.    Subject,  hip  and  thigh. 
Flex  leg. 

Lesson  No.  14. 
Flex  thigh. 

Bend  and  straighten  the  knee. 
'Thigh  swinging. 


250  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

Lesson  No.  15. 
Lunging. 
Stamping. 

Lesson  No.  16.    Subject,  swaying. 
Swaying  with  common  and  wide  base. 

Lesson  No.  17.    Subject,  running. 
Hopping  and  running. 

Lesson  No.  18.    Subject,  the  arm. 
Opening  and  closing  the  hand. 
Separate  and  close  the  fingers. 
Flex  and  extend  the  hand. 
Circling  the  hand. 

Lesson  No.  19. 
Flex  and  rotate  the  arm. 
Arm  swinging. 
Thrusting  motions. 

Lesson  No.  20.    Subject,  the  arm,  walking. 
Work  for  wrist  by  all  forearm  motions. 
Walking,    knee   bending,    thigh    flexing,  .  leg 
swinging. 

Lesson  No.  21. 
The  seven  primary  exercises  in  walking. 

Lesson  No.  22.    Subject,  gesture  work. 
Angle  work  with  arms. 
Curved  lines  for  gesture. 

Lesson  No.  23.    Subject,  compound  work. 
Charging  motions  with  arms  swinging. 

Lesson  No.  24.    Subject,  gesture  work. 
Curved  lines  combined  with  swaying  motions. 
Attitudes,  first  group. 

Lesson  No.  25. 
Attitudes  one  and  two. 


DIVISION  OF  WORK.  251, 

Lesson  No.  26. 
Methods  of  placing  the  class. 

Lesson  No.  27.    Subject,  balancing  exercises. 

Toe  standing  with 

Arms  front,  up,  out. 

Same,  feet  close. 

Review  charging  and  walking  exercises. 

Lesson  No.  28.    Subject,  balancing. 

Stride  toe  standing  with 
Arms  up,  front,  out. 
Same  walk  toe  standing. 
Review  placing  the  class. 

Lesson  No.  29.    Subject,  balancing. 

Balance  step. 
Attitude  No.  4. 

Lesson  No.  SO.    Subject,  balancing. 
Walk  standing  with  half-bent  knees. 
Same  stride  stand. 
Attitude  No.  5. 

Lesson  No.  31.    Subject,  balancing. 
Flex  legs. 
Flex  thighs. 

Same  with  arms  up,  front,  out. 
Review  all  attitudes. 

Lesson  No.  82.    Subject,  shoulders. 
Round  shoulders. 
Primary :  force,  elevate, 

depress,  roll. 

Secondary  :  setting  up  exercises. 
Circling  motions. 
Attitudes  good  and  bad. 


252  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

Lesson  No.  S3.    Subject,  shoulders,  lunging. 

Uneven  shoulders. 
Elevate  or  shrug. 
Secondary :  arm  swinging. 
Head  bending. 
Lunging  exercise. 

.    Lesson  No.  34.    Subject,  shoulders,  lunging. 

Bottle  neck . 

Head  bending  to  right  and  left. 
Arm  swinging  out  and  up. 
Shrugging  shoulders. 
Lunging  exercises. 

Lesson  No.  35.    Subject,  the  thorax. 

To  widen. 

Primary :  sternum  expression. 

Secondary :  shrug  shoulders. 

Swing  arm  sideways. 

Bend  body  to  right  and  left.    Letter  Y. 

Lesson  No.  36.    Subject,  the  thorax. 

To  deepen . 

Primary :  sternum  expression. 

Secondary  :  bend  head  backward. 

Bend  body  backward. 

Swing  arms  front  and  up. 

Letter  Y  and  bend  backward. 

Hips  firm  and  forward  bend. 

Lesson  No.  87.    Subject,  the  lungs. 

Breathing  by  inhaling  and  exhaling  in  rhythm. 

Secondary  :  inhale  and  exhale  and 

Bend  head  backward. 

Swing  arms  front  and  up,  out  and  up. 

Percussing  motions  for  the  thorax. 


FIG.  30.— Start  for  the  Half  Snake.    (Page  237.) 


DIVISION  OF   WORK.  253 

Lessons  Nos.  38  and  39.    Subject,  the  heart  and  lungs. 
Preparation  to  jump. 
Hopping  exercises. 
Running  exercises. 
Precipitant  work. 

Lesson  No.  40.     Quieting  exercises. 
Slow  leg  work. 
Breathing. 

'Lesson  No.  41.    Subject,  the  hi})*. 
Swing  legs  to  front,  right, 
Back  and  obliquely  back. 
Bend  body  forward. 

Lesson  No.  42.    Subject,  the  back. 
Bend  the  body  forward  with 
Hips  firm,  neck  firm,  and  arms  up. 

Lesson  No.  4-L   Subject,  sides  of  the  ivaist. 
Bend  the  body  to  right  and  left  with 
Hips  firm,  neck  firm,  and  arms  up. 

Lesson  No.  44.    Subject,  the  abdomen. 
Bend  body  backward  with 
Hips  firm,  neck  firm,  and  arms  up. 

Lessons  No*.  45,  46,  and  47. 
Postures. 

Lessons  Nos.  48,  49,  and  50. 
Percussing  movements. 

The  following  lessons  have  been  used  by  the  author  in 
the  public  schools  of  the  state  of  Connecticut : 

Lesson  No.  1. 
Order  Exercises :  Position  of  attention,  hips  firm,  anus 

down,  out,  up,  and  front. 

Leg  :  Feet  close,  feet  open  ;  foot  placing  to  right  and  left. 
Head  :  Head  backward  bend  ;  upward  raise. 


254  METHODS  OF  TEACHING   GYMNASTICS. 

Arm  :  Flex  and  extend  fingers,  with  arras  down,  front, 

and  up. 

Balancing  :  Stand  on  tiptoes,  feet  open. 
Shoulder  :  Force  shoulders  back,  touching  .scapula. 
Thorax  :  Shrug  shoulders. 
Waist :  Hips  firm,  body  backward  bend. 
Back  :  Hips  firm,  body  forward  bend. 
Heart  and  Lungs  :  Hopping  on  the  right,  then  on  the 

left  foot. 

Quieting  :  Foot  placing  to  right  and  left. 
Breathing  :  Shrug  shoulders. 

Lesson  No.   :. 

Order  Exercises  :  Toe  standing;  neck  firm  ;  arms  flexed. 
Leg  :  Stepping  motions. 
Head  :  Neck  firm,  backward  bend. 
Arm  :  Flexing  and  extending  of  hand,  witli  arm  in  four 

positions. 

Balancing  :  Standing  on  toes,  feet  close. 
Shoulders  :  Hips  firm,  thumbs  touching  back  of  body. 
Thorax  :  Arms  swinging  front. 
Waist :  Hips  firm,  body  backward  bending. 
Back  :  Forward  bending.     Hips  firm,  feet  close. 
Heart  and  Lungs  :  Hopping  on  right  and  left  foot. 
Quieting  :  Stepping  motions. 
Breathing  :  Arm  swinging  front. 

Lesson  No.  3. 
Order  Exercises  :  Upton's  position  of  a  soldier.     Walk 

stand,  hips  firm,  arms  one-half  flexed. 
Leg  :  Calf  work,  raise  on  toes. 
Head  :  Head  to  right  and  left  bend. 
Arms  :  Rotate  forearms,  arms  half  flexed. 
Balancing  :  Walk  toe  standing. 
Shoulders  :  Flex  arms,  palms  front. 
Thorax  :  Arm  swinging  out. 

Waist :  Hips  firm,  body  bending  to  right  and  left. 
Back  :  Neck  firm,  body  forward  bending. 


DIVISION  OF  WORK.  255 

Heart  and  Lungs  :  Hopping  on  right  and  left,  and  on 

both  feet, 

Quieting  :  Calf  work. 
Breathing  :  Arm  swinging  out. 

Lesson  No.  4. 
Order  Exercises  :  Hips  firm.    Stride  toe  stand.     Hands 

clasped  on  head'. 
Leg  :  Front  leg  work,  raise  toes. 
Head  :  Hand  on  head,  head  to  right  and  left  bend. 
Arms :  Twist  entire  arm,  in  four  positions. 
Balancing  :  Stand  on  one  foot. 
Shoulders  :  The  position  of  a  diver. 
Thorax  :  Arm  swinging  front  and  up. 
Waist :  Hips  firm.     Turn  body  to  right  and  left. 
Back  :  Feet  close,  hips  firm,  body  forward  bending. 
Heart  and  Lungs  :  Running  in  place. 
Quieting  :  Front  leg  work. 
Breathing  :  Arm  swinging  front. 

Lesson  No.  5. 

Order  Exercises  :    Letter  Y,  neck  firm,  stride  toe  stand. 
Legs  :    Flex  the  legs  (back  thigh). 
Head  :    Head  to  right  and  left  turn. 
Arms  :    Flex  and  extend  arms. 
Balancing :    Stand  on  one  foot,  arms  up. 
Shoulders  :    From  position  of  a  soldier,  take  letter  Y. 
Thorax:    Arm    swinging   up,  slapping    hands    above 

head.    Arm  swinging  front,  up,  back,  and  down. 
Waist :    Stride  standing,  backward  bending,  neck  firm. 
Back  :    Bending  obliquely  forward  to  right  and  left,  hips 

firm. 
Heart  and  Lungs  :     Hopping,  separate  and  touch  the 

feet. 

Quieting :    Flex  the  legs. 
Breathing  :    Arm  swinging  front. 

Lesson  No.  6. 
Order  Exercises  :    Letter  Y,  feet  close,  toe  standing. 


256  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

Leg  :    Half  lower  body  (front  thigh). 

Head  :    Head  backward  forcing. 

Arms  :    Flex  and  rotate  arms. 

Balancing :  Stand  on  one  foot,  swinging  other  leg  for- 
ward and  backward. 

Shoulders  :    Arms  front,  out,  and  down. 

Thorax  :    Body  forward  bend,  arm  thrusting  up. 

Waist :    Backward  bending,  neck  firm. 

Back  :    Forward  bending,  neck  firm. 

Heart  and  Lungs  :  Hopping,  separating  and  touching 
feet. 

Quieting  :    Half  lower  body. 

Breathing  :    Arm  swinging  out  and  up. 

Lesson  No.  7. 

Order  Exercises  :    The  charging  position. 
Leg  :    Leg  swinging  for  hip  region. 
Head  :    Head  backward  force,  neck  firm. 
Arm  :    Deltoid,  arm  swinging. 
Balancing :    Stand  on  one  foot,  and  point  the  other  leg 

front,  out,  and  back. 
Shoulder  :    Elevate  the  right  and  lower  the  left  by  arm 

flexion  and  extension. 

Thorax  :    Arm  bending  and  extending  upward. 
Waist :    Arms  up,  body  bending  to  right  and  left. 
Back  :    Forward  bending,  neck  firm.    Feet  close. 
Heart  and  Lungs :    Running  in  place,  increasing  the 

number  of  times. 

Quieting  :    Leg  swinging  for  hip  region. 
Breathing  :    Arm  swinging  out  and  up. 

Lesson  No.  8. 
Order   Exercises:    Charging   position    with   arms    up. 

Arm  flinging  position. 
Leg :    Thigh  flexing. 
Head  :    Rolling  motions. 

Arm  :    Position  of  arm  flinging  and  elbow  out. 
Balancing  :    Place  rest,  and  on  the  heels  stand. 


DIVISION  OF  WORK.  257 

Shoulder  :    Setting  up  exercise  No.  1. 

Thorax  :    Arms  front,  out,  up,  and  down. 

Waist :    Arms  up,  body  bending  to  right  and  left. 

Back  :    Forward  bending,  neck  firm.    Walk  stand. 

Heart  and  Lungs  :    Running  in  place,  increasing  the 

number  of  times. 
Quieting :    Thigh  flexing. 
Breathing  :    Arm  swinging  front  and  up. 

Lesson  No.  9. 

Order  Exercises  :    Arms  out,  and  body  turn  to  right  and 

left. 

Leg  :    Raise  on  toes,  then  half  lower  body. 
Head  :    Head  backward  bending,  with  resistance. 
Arm  :    Flex  arm,  extend  arm,  and  deltoid  work. 
Balancing  :    Both  mark  time  and  halt  on  heels. 
Shoulder :    Setting  up  exercise  No.  2. 
Thorax :    Charging  position,  arm  thrusting  up. 
Waist :    Body  bending  backward,  arms  up. 
Back  :    Forward  bending,  arms  up. 
Heart  and  Lungs ;    Running  in   place,    increasing  the 

number  of  times. 

Quieting  :    Raise  on  toes  and  half  lower  body. 
Breathing :    Arm  swinging  front  and  up. 

DUMB  BELLS. 

Below  will  be  found  a  division  of  dumb  bell  work  for 
use  at  each  lesson.  The  drills  themselves  are  somewhat 
old,  but  are  given  more  to  illustrate  the  methods  of 
dividing  lessons  than  to  call  attention  to  the  drills  them- 
selves. The  author  recommends  the  Roberts  bell  drill 
for  young  men  (R.  J.  Roberts,  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  Boston, 
Mass.),  also  the  Hitchcock  dumb  bell  drill  used  at 
Amherst  College  (Dr.  Edward  Hitchcock,  Amherst, 
Mass). 


258  METHODS  OF   TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

The  book  entitled  "Light  Gymnastics"  has  not  been 
revised  by  the  author  and  is  not  therefore  up  to  date  in 
all  respects,  but  it  will  be  of  assistance  to  the  beginner. 

Young  teachers  should  be  original  if  possible  and  not 
depend  too  much  on  others. 

The  pages  mentioned  refer  to  "  Light  Gymnastics." 

Lessons  Nos.  1  to  5.     The  alphabet. 

(1)  Attention. 
Bells  on  hips. 
Bells  on  chest,  a  b. 

Bells  on  shoulders,  a  b.    Page  117. 

(2)  Salutes. 
Bells  at  back. 
Arms  folded. 

Bells  under  shoulders. 

(3)  Angles. 
Circling  motions. 

(4)  Flexing. 
Swinging. 
Twisting. 
Striking  motions. 

(5)  Anvil  strike. 
Pushing  the  bell. 

Lessons  Nos.  6  and  7.     First  series. 

(6)  Nos.  I.,  II.,  III.,  IV.,  V.,  VI. 

(7)  Nos.  VII.,  VIII.,  IX.,  X.,  XL,  XII.     Page  123. 

Lessons  Nos.  8,  9,  and  10.    Second  series. 

(8)  Nos.  L,  II.,  V. 

(9)  Nos.  III.,  IV.,  VII. 

(10)  Nos.  VI.  and  VII.     Page  125. 

Lessons  Nos.  11  and  12.     The  arm. 

(11)  Develop  forearm. 

(12)  Develop  upper  arm. 


OFTHK  \ 

f  UNIVERSITY  \ 

DIVISION  OF  WOR!??        F       "^     259 

Lessons  Nos.  13  and  14-     Marching  series. 

(13)  Nos.  I.,  II.,  III. 

(14)  Nos.  IV.,  V.     Page  130. 

Lessons  Nos.  15  and  16.     Marching  series. 

(15)  Circling  motions. 

(16)  Thrusting  motions.    Page  130. 

Lessons  Nos.  17  to  21.     Third  series. 

(17)  Nos.  L,  II.,  III. 

(18)  Nos.  IV.,  V.,  VI.,  VIII. 

(19)  Nos.  IX.,  X.,  XI. 

(20)  Nos.  XII.,  XIII. 

(21)  Nos.  XIV.,  XV.     Page  126. 

Lessons  Nos.  22  and  23.    Third  marching  series. 

(22)  Nos.  I.,  II.,  III.,  V.,  VI. 

(23)  Nos.  VIL,  VIII.,  X.,  XL,  XII.     Page  130. 

Lessons  Nos.  24  to  27.    Anvil  Chorus. 

(24)  Nos.  I.,  II.,  VI. 

(25)  Nos.  III.,  IV.,  VII.,  VIII. 

(26)  Nos.  V.,  IX.,  X. 

(27)  Nos.  XI.,  XII.     Page  131. 

Lessons  Nos.  28  to  30.     The  thorax. 

(28)  Widen  the  chest. 

(29)  Deepen  the  chest. 

(30)  Breathing  exercises. 

Lessons  Nos.  31  to  33.     Pizzicati  Chorus. 

(31)  Nos.  I.,  II.,  V. 

(32)  Nos.  III.,  IV.,  VI. 

(33)  Nos.  VII.,  VIII.,  IX.,  X.,  XI.     Page  134. 

THE  WANDS. 

Much  that  has  been  said  about  the  bells  will  apply  to 
the  wands.    There  is  such  a  variety  of  motions  with  this 


260  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

piece  of  apparatus  that  we  can  only  call  attention  to 
some  of  the  exercises. 

Lessons  Nos.  1  to  3.     The  alphabet. 

(1)  Nos.  L,  II.,  III.,  IV.,  V. 

(2)  Nos.  VI.,  VII.,  VIII.,  IX. 

(3)  Nos.  X.,  XL,  XII.     Page  83. 

Lessons  Nos.  4  to  6.    Marching  series. 

(4)  Nos.  L,  II.,  III.,  IV.,  V. 

(5)  Nos.  VI.,  VII.,  VIII. 

(6)  The  entire  alphabet.     Page  89. 

Lessons'  Nos.  7  and  8.     Fimt  series. 

(7)  Take  Nos.  I.  to  VIII. 

(8)  Take  the  rest  of  the  lesson.    Page  89. 

Lessons  Nos.  9  to  12.     Second  series. 

(9)  Nos.  L,  II.,  III. 

(10)  Nos.  IV.,  V.,  VI. 

(11)  Nos.  VIL,  VIII.,  IX. 

(12)  No.  X.    Page  91. 

Lessons  Nos.  13  to  SI.      Third  series. 

(13)  Nos.  L,  II.,  III. 

(14)  Nos.  IV.,  V.,  VI. 

(15)  Nos.  VIL,  VIIL,  IX. 
(16,  17)  The  winding  motions. 

(18)  No.  X. 

(19)  No.  XL 

(20)  No.  XII. 

(21)  No.  XIII.     Page  96. 

Lessons  Nos.  22  to  24.     Manual  of  arms. 

(22)  Present,  Charge,  Port. 

(23)  Order,  Parade  rest,  Carry  arms. 

(24)  Inspect  and  fire.     Page  103. 


DIVISION  OF  WORK.  261 

Lessons  Nos.  25  and  26.    Bayonet  drill. 

(25)  Right  and  left  guard,  Parries  and  high  guard. 

(26)  Thrust  to  rear,  high,  middle,  and  low.  Page  108. 

CLUB  SWINGING. 

The  following  arrangement  of  movements   in   club 
swinging,  which  comprise  thirty  lessons,  does  not  cover 
the  ground.  One  who  has  handled  clubs  for  several  years 
will  find  that  there  is  yet  much  to  learn.    Page  139. 
Lesson  No.  1.—  Position.    "  Pass."    Heart-shaped  circles 

out.    Pendulum  (single  club). 
Lesson  No.  ^.—Heart-shaped  circles  reversed. 
Lesson  No.  S. — Heart-shaped  circles  to  the  front. 
Lesson  No.  ^.—Heart-shaped  circles  to  the  rear. 
Lesson  No.  5.— Double  heart-shaped  circles  to  the  right 

and  left  and  out. 

Lesson  No.  6— Double  pendulum  and  lower  front  circle. 
Lesson  No.  7.— Shoulder  circles  reversed. 
Lessons  Nos.  8  and  9. — Shoulder  circles  front. 
Lessons  Nos.  10  and  ^/.—Shoulder  circles  out. 
Lesson  No.  12. — Halves  of  complete  circles  reversed. 
Lesson  No.  ^.—Halves  of  complete  circles  out. 
Lessons  Nos.  14  and  15. ~ Complete  shoulder  circles  out. 
Lessons  Nos.  16  and  17. — Complete  circles  reversed. 
Lesson  No.  18.— Heart-shaped  circles  follow  time. 
Lesson  No.  19. — Same  circles  reel  time. 
Lesson  No.  20. — The  drop  outside. 
Lesson  No.  2L—  The  drop  inside. 
Lesson  No.  22.— The  raise  outside. 
Lesson  No.  23. — The  raise  inside. 
Lesson  No.  24. — The  single  overhead  parallel. 
Lesson  No.  25. — The  reel. 
Lesson  No.  26.—  The  follow. 
Lessons  Nos.  27,  28.,  and  29. — Single  lower  back. 
Lesson  No.  SO.—  The  double  lower  back. 

Lessons  1,  2,  3,  and  4  are  taken  with  one  club. 


262          METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GYMNASTICS. 

SCHOOL  FENCING. 

Method  of  arranging  the  lessons  in  broadsword  fenc- 
ing for  school  use : 

Lessons  Nos.  1  and  2.—  Half  face.  Feet  at  90  degrees. 
Bend  knees.  Advance  foot  and  place  arms  in  posi- 
tion. (Use  no  sword.) 

Lesson  No  8.—  On  guard,  advance  and  retreat  by  steps. 
(No  sword.) 

Lesson  No.  4.— On  guard,  advance  and  retreat  by  leaps. 
(No  sword.) 

Lesson  No.  5. — On  guard,  using  the  sword  for  the  first 
time. 

Lesson  No.  6.  -Head,  cheek,  and  shoulder  guard. 

Lesson  No.  7. — Leg  guards. 

Lesson  No.  8. — Practice  all  guards.  Advance,  retreat, 
and  sway. 

Lesson  No.  9.— Form  twos  and  give  head  blow. 

Lesson  No.  10. — Cheek  and  shoulder  blows. 

Lesson  No.  11. — Leg  blows. 

Lesson  No.  12.—  Practice  all  blows. 

Lesson  No.  13. — Lunging. 

Lesson  No.  14. — Lunging  and  striking. 

Lesson  No.  15. — Begin  the  series. 
For  details  see  page  171. 


A  LIST  OF  BOOKS  FOR  REFERENCE. 

Arnaud  and  Delausmone  :  The  Delsarte  System. 

Ascham  :  Schoolmaster. 

Baine  :  Education  as  a  Science. 

Bailie  :  Lectures  on  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education. 

Bishop  :  Americanized  Delsarte  Culture. 

Browning  :  Educational  Theories. 

Comenius  :  Great  Didactic. 

Compayre  :  History  of  Pedagogy. 

Cora  pay  re  :  Lectures  on  Pedagogy. 

Everett :  Primer  of  Ethics. 

Fitch  :  Lectures  on  Teaching. 

Hall :  Pedagogical  Seminary. 

Hughes  :  Mistakes  in  Teaching. 

Johonnot :  Practice  of  Teaching. 

Kirke  :  Hand-book  of  Physiology. 

Locke  :  Thoughts  Concerning  Education. 

Milton  :  Tractate  on  Education. 

Oscar  Browning  :  Practice  of  Education. 

Parker  :  Talks  on  Teaching. 

Payne  :  Theory,  Practice,  and  History  of  Education. 

Pestalozzi :  Leonard  and  Gertrude. 

Posse  :  Kinesiology. 

Preyer  :  Infant  Mind. 

Quick  :  Lives  of  Educational  Reformers. 

Rousseau  :  Emile. 

Seaver  :  Physical  Diagnosis. 

Spencer:  Education. 

Sweet :  Methods  of  Teaching. 

Thring  :  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching. 

White :  School  Management. 


INDEX. 


Alignments,  201. 

Alphabet,  158. 

American  system,  47. 

Amiel,  54. 

Analysis,  111. 

Anderson,  H.  S.,  13. 

Ankle,  123. 

Anvil  Chorus,  223. 

Aristotle,  32,  56. 

Arms,  124. 

Arnold,  25. 

Attention,  84, 183. 

Automatic  movements,  113. 

Back,  64. 

Back  step,  198. 

Bain,  19. 

Balancing  movements,  63. 

Base,  common,  15;   narrow,  15; 

wide,  15. 

Basedow,  22,  83,  105. 
Bells,  216. 
Bishop,  47. 
Blackston,  19. 
Blaikie,  79. 
Bolin,  12,  68. 
Bowne,  B.  P.,  49. 
Boys,  how  to  teach,  171. 
Breal,  93. 

Breathing,  135,  1  r>. 
Brosius,  186. 
Browning,  33,  77. 
Buisson,104. 
Carlyle,  22,  54. 
Change  step,  196. 
Changing  weight,  155. 
Charging  motion,  159. 
Charge,  reverse,  160. 
Chauvet,  28. 
Chest,  134. 
Chivalry,  34. 
Circling  motions,  161. 
Clark,  38,  55. 
Club  swinging,  261. 
Clubs,  229. 
Comenius,  22, 164. 
Commands,  164. 
Compayre,  26. 
Condillac,  84. 

Corporal  punishment,  100, 105. 
Cowper,  54. 
Day's  order,  57. 
Defects,  149. ' 
Delsarte,  40,  46. 


Deltoid,  128. 

Denzel,  28. 

De  Quincey,  54. 

De  Saussure,  28,  86,  91. 

Developing  work,  14. 

Dickinson,  Dr.  R.  L.,  20,  38, 146. 

Directions,  150. 

Discipline,  95. 

Division  of  work  for  3~ear,  24">. 

Double  time,  200. 

Drop  circle,  235. 

Dumb  bells,  216,  257. 

Education,  general,  26. 

Eggleston,  Edward,  102. 

Eliot,  76. 

Emerson,  R.  W.,  38,  55. 

Enebuske,  69. 

Ethics,  40. 

Exercise,  compound,  14  ;  double, 
14;  simple,  14. 

Exercises,  primary,  14 ;  second- 
ary, 14. 

Facings,  right  and  left,  190. 

Fencing,  238,  262. 

Fitz,  70. 

Flank  movements,  203. 

Foot  extension  and  flexion,  155. 

Foot  raising,  155. 

Football,  50. 

Form  fours  from  a  line,  211. 

Form  fours  from  file  of  twos,  208. 

Form  twos  from  fours,  210. 

Form  twos  from  a  line,  210. 

Form  twos  and  fours  from  file, 
208. 

Fours  right  or  left,  211. 

French  program,  38. 

Froebel,  22,  '23,  24,  38,  39. 

Gargantua,  37. 

German  system,  45,  46. 

Government,  95. 

Grace,  45, 117. 

Grant,  Horace,  86. 

Greeks,  29, 81. 

Gulick,  Dr.  Luther,  238. 

Guts  Muth,  45. 

Gymnastic  selection,  58 ;  totality, 
58 ;  unity,  59. 

Gymnastics,  cesthetic,  14 ;  cor- 
rective, 14 ;  educational.  13 ; 
free,  14,  248;  heavy,  14;  light, 
14;  medical,  13;  military,  14, 
183,245. 


267 


268 


INDEX. 


Hall,  G.  Stanley,  55,  76,  ill. 
Halt,  194. 

Hartwell,  Dr.  E.  M.,  41. 
Head,  122. 
Health,  115. 
Heave-movements,  62. 
Hitchcock,  Dr.  E.,  92,  257. 
Hopping,  162. 
Hour  division,  178. 
Hughes,  20. 
Huxley,  37. 
Interest,  83. 

Introductory  movements,  61. 
Ireson,  Jennie  M.,  90. 
Jacotot,  22,  25. 
James,  53. 
Joly,  28. 
Kant,  27,  94,  105. 
Kellogg,  Dr.,  146. 
Kingsley,  56. 
Knee  bending,  154. 
Kyphosis,  147. 
Ladd,  70. 
La  Grange,  146. 
Leg  movements,  61,  65,  66. 
Leg  swinging,  155. 
Legs,  123. 

Le  Row,  C.  B.,  100. 
Letter  "  Y  ",  139. 
Ling,  12, 13,  68. 
Locke,  22,  35,  83, 105. 
Lunging  motions,  162. 
Luther,  34. 
Mahaffy,  29. 
Mann,  56. 
Mannerisms,  242. 
March,  by  the  flank,  203  ;  in  file, 
189;  in  line,  202;  to  the  rear.  litl. 
Marion,  28,  56. 
Marking  time,  192. 
Mays,  Dr.,  146. 
Melancthon,  35. 
Memory  exercises,  119. 
Military  gymnastics,  14, 183,  245. 
Mill,  20,  22,  28. 
Milton,  37. 

Mistakes  in  teaching,  106. 
Montaigne,  35, 106. 
Morrill,  A.  B.,  221. 
Mosher,Dr.  E.  M.,  163, 188. 
Munger,  54. 
Music,  35. 
Neck,  122. 
Niemeyer,  28. 
Opinions  of  educators,  16. 
Oblique  face,  189. 
Oblique  march,  205. 
Order  movements,  60. 
Order  of  exercises,  12. 
Parker,  55,  99. 
Pascal,  54. 
Payne,  24,  25,  26,  27,  39,  86,  91. 


Pedagogy,  26. 

Pestalozzi,  22,  26. 

Philbrick,  John,  22. 

Physical  education,  German,  40; 
Greek,  29 ;  opinions  on,  29 ;  Ro- 
man, 32 ;  Swedish,  40. 

Physique,  116. 

Place  rest,  188. 

Placing,  161. 

Platform,  9. 

Plato,  27,  32, 171. 

Play,  24,  39. 

Posse,  Baron,  68, 139, 185. 

Precipitant  movements,  66. 

Pulse-rate,  68. 

Quarter  circle,  142. 

Quick,  36. 

Rabelais.  ?,6,  37,  105. 

Ratich.  22,  23. 

Reel,  23-5. 

Reflex  acts,  111. 

Reformers,  34. 

Relations  of  teacher  to  parent, 
109. 

Respiratory  exercises,  66. 

Reverse  charge,  160. 

Richards,  E.  L..  83, 118. 

Richter,  Jean  Paul,  102. 

Right,  forward,  fours  right.  212. 

Roberts,  R.  J.,  138,  167. 

Round  work,  120. 

Rousseau,  22,  28, 36. 

Running,  163. 

Sarcasm,  100. 

Schmidt,  46. 

School  government,  95. 

Scripture,  70. 

Seaver,  70, 145, 230. 

Seldon,  18. 

Self-control,  117. 

Self-reliance,  117. 

Shoulders,  130. 

Side  movements,  65. 

Simon,  28. 

Skarstrom,  43. 

Snake,  236. 

Socrates,  29,  32. 

Spencer,  18,  22,  28,  29,  S9,  87,  97. 

Spine,  147. 

Starting,  193. 

Step,  back,  198 ;  long,  199 ;  short, 
199 ;  side,  198. 

Stepping  motion,  158. 

Stimulus,  76. 

Strength,  115. 

Sully,  93. 

Swaying,  153, 161. 

Swedish  day's  order,  12. 

Swedish  system,  12,  45,  74. 

Swett,  38, 104. 

Swinging  motions,  161. 

Synthesis,  111. 


INDEX. 


269 


Tense-bendings,  61. 

Terms,  13. 

Thigh  swinging,  lotf. 

Thorax,  134. 

Trotzendorf,  35. 

Twos,  right  or  left,  210,  211. 

Tyndall,21. 

Voice,  164. 


Walking,  how  to  teach,  151. 

Wands,  226,  259. 

Warner,  46. 

Wheelings,  205. 

Who  should  teach  7115. 

Why  do  we  teach  ?  115. 

Will,  118. 

Xenophon,29. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

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